Структурная функциональность особенностей английских электронных текстов

ДОДАТКИ

Додаток А

Персональні веб-сторінки лінгвістів

А.1. Персональна веб-сторінка Джорджа Лакоффа

George Lakoff's Web Page

George Lakoff is Professor of Linguistics at the University of California at Berkeley.

Present Courses:

Linguistics 105/Cogsci 101-201  The Mind and Language

Linguistics 107/Cogsci 107   The Mind and Mathematics

Major Books:

Metaphors We Live By (with Mark Johnson).  1980. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Women, Fire and Dangerous Things.  1987. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor.  1989. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Moral Politics.   1996. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Philosophy in the Flesh. (with Mark Johnson)  1999. New York: Basic Books.

Where Mathematics Comes From: How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being.(with Raphael Núñez)  December 2000. New York: Basic Books.

А.2. Персональна веб-сторінка Тойна ван Дейка

Home-page of Teun A. van Dijk

Research in Critical Discourse Analysis

Last Updated: April 11, 2004

Suggestions for this homepage are welcome! See e-mail address at the bottom of this page.

Vita and Publication List

Publication List and Short Vita

Lista de trabajos traducidos en español

One Page Mini-Vita and Selection of books of Teun A. van Dijk

Short Biographical Note

From Text Grammar to Critical Discourse Analysis
Academic Autobiography.

De la gramática del texto al análisis crítico del discurso
Versión española de la autobiografía académica.

Just Published

RECENT BOOKS

DOMINACIÓN ÉTNICA Y RACISMO DISCURSIVO EN ESPAÑA Y AMÉRICA LATINA. Barcelona, 2003.

    - English version to appear with Benjamins, Amsterdxa, 2004.

RACISMO Y DISCURSO DE LAS ÉLITES. Barcelona: Gedisa, 2003.
(Shorter, Spanish version of Elite Discourse and Racism, London, Sage, 1993).

IDEOLOGÍA Y DISCURSO. Una introducción multidisciplinaria. Barcelona: Ariel, 2003

RACISM AT THE TOP. Parliamentary Discourses on Ethnic Issues in Six European States. (Klagenfurt: Drava Verlag, 2000). Ruth Wodak & Teun A. van Dijk, Eds.

ANÁLISIS DEL DISCURSO SOCIAL Y POLÍTICO. Teun A. van Dijk & Iván Rodrigo M. (Quito, Ecuador: Abya-Yala, 1999).

IDEOLOGY. A Multidisciplinary Approach. (London: Sage: 1998).
Order from Sage Ltd. (London): Phone: +44-171-330.1266. Fax: 374.8741.
For the USA and Latin America, order from Sage, Inc. (USA):
E-mail: order@sagepub.com ; Internet: www.sagepub.com;
Fax: (1)(805) 499-0871; Phone: (1)(805) 499.9774.
Or order from amazon.com. See Ordering from Amazon.com .

    -- Spanish translation: Ideología (Barcelona-Buenos Aires: Gedisa, 1999).
 

SELECTION OF RECENT ARTICLES (2000-2004)
For other articles, see publication list.

War Rhetoric of a Little Ally. Political implicatures of Aznar's Legitimization of the War in Iraq. Paper CDA Symposium Copenhagen, May, 2003. To be published in special issue of the Journal of Language and Politics, edited by Lilie Chouliaraki.

Contextual knowledge management in discourse production.  Paper read at the Society for Text and Discourse Conference, Madrid 26-28, 2003.  New version, under the title "Contextual knowledge management in discourse production. A CDA perspective" to be published in Ruth Wodak and Christoph Bärenreuter (Eds.), Interdisciplinary CDA.

Discourse, knowledge and ideology. Paper for the International LAUD Symposium on Language and Ideology. Landau,  25-28 March, 2002. Prepublished by LAUD, Essen, Germany.  To be published in Martin Pütz, JoAnne Neff & Teun A. van Dijk (Eds.),  Communicating Ideologies. Berne: Lang (in press).

       - Portuguese version "Discurso, conhecimento e ideologia: reformulando velhas questões" in Claudio Cezar Henriques (org), Linguagem, conhecimento e aplicação. (pp. 389-414.) Rio de Janeiro: Europa, 2003.

Knowledge in parlamentary debates.  Journal of Language and Politics ,  2(2003), 93-129.  Special issue on identity politics. Ed. by Paul Chilton.

The Discourse-Knowledge Interface. In Gilbert Weiss & Ruth Wodak (Eds.), Critical Discourse Analysis. Theory and Interdisciplinarity. (pp. 85-109). Houndsmills, UK: Palgrave-MacMillan, 2003.

Racist Discourse. In Ellis Cashmore (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies. (pp. 351-355). London: Routledge, 2004.

Political discourse and political cognition. In Paul A. Chilton & Christina Schäffner (Eds.), Politics as Text and Talk. Analytical approaches to political discourse. (pp. 204-236). Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2002.

Political discourse and ideology. In Clara Ubaldina Lorda & Montserrat Ribas (Eds.), Anàlisi del discurs polític. Producció, mediació i recepció. Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Institut Universitari de Lingüística Aplicada (IULA). (pp. 15-34).  Barcelona, 2002.

El conocimiento y las noticias. In Josep V. Gavaldà Roca, Carmen Gregori Signes & Ramon X Rosselló Ivars (Eds.), La cultura mediàtica. Modes de representació i estratègies discursives. (pp. 249-269). Universitat de València. Facultat de Filologia, 2002.

Tipos de conocimiento en el procesamiento del discurso. En Giovanni Parodi (Ed.), Lingüística e interdisciplinaridad: Desafíos del nuevo milenio. Ensayos en Honor a Marianne Peronard. (pp. 43-66). Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso de la Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, 2002.

Discourse and Racism. In David T. Goldberg & John Solomos (Eds.), A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies. (pp. 145-159). Oxford: Blackwell, 2002

    - Spanish version published in Persona y Sociedad (Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Instituto Latinoamericano de doctrina y Estudios Sociales, ILADES, Santiago de Chile), XVI (3), diciembre, 2002, 191-205.

Discourse, Ideology and Context. Folia Linguistica, XXXV/1-2 (2001), 11-40.Special issue. "Critical Discourse Analysis in Postmodern Societies". Guest Editor Ruth Wodak.

Multidisciplinary CDA: a plea for diversity. In Ruth Wodak & Michael Meyer (Eds.), Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. (pp. 95-120). London: Sage, 2001.

Critical Discourse Analysis. In Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen, & Heidi E. Hamilton (Eds.), The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. (pp. 352-371). Oxford: Blackwell, 2001.

Algunos principios de la teoría del contexto. ALED. Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios del Discurso, 1(1), 2001, 69-82.

Ideologies, Racism, Discourse. Debates on Immigration and Ethnic Issues. In Jessika ter Wal & Maykel Verkuyten (Eds.), Comparative Perspectives on Racism. (pp. 91-116). Aldershot etc. Ashgate, 2000.

New(s) Racism: A discourse analytical approach. In Simon Cottle (Ed.), Ethnic minorities and the media. (pp. 33-49). Buckingham, UK & Philadelphia, USA: Open University Press, 2000.

The reality of racism. On analyzing parliamentary debates on immigration. In Guido Zurstiege (E.). Festschrift für die Wirklichkeit. (pp. 211-226). Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2000. (=Festschrift for Siegried Schmidt).

Theoretical Background. In Ruth Wodak & Teun A. van Dijk (Eds.), Racism at the Top. Parliamentary Discourses on Ethnic Issues in Six European States. (pp. 13-30). Klagenfurt: Drava Verlag, 2000.

Parliamentary Debates. In Ruth Wodak & Teun A. van Dijk (Eds.), Racism at the Top. Parliamentary Discourses on Ethnic Issues in Six European States. (pp. 45-78). Klagenfurt: Drava Verlag, 2000.

How to order my books through Amazon.com...

Many of my books can be ordered directly via the internet bookstore Amazon.com (or in the UK at amazon.co.uk). Click on any of the following recent titles to reach that title in the Amazon bookstore, where you'll find instructions for ordering.
 

Ideology: A Multidisciplinary Approach / Paperback / Sage Ltd, London, 1998. (Amazon Price: $27.95).

Discourse As Structure and Process (Discourse Studies : A Multidisciplinary Introduction, Vol 1) , Teun A. van Dijk (Editor) / Paperback / Sage Ltd, London, 1997. (Amazon Price: $28.95).  

Discourse As Social Interaction (Discourse Studies : A Multidisciplinary Introduction, Vol 2), Teun A. van Dijk (Editor) / Paperback / Sage Ltd, London, 1997 (Amazon Price: $22.95).

    - A Spanish and Japanese translation of Discourse Studies is in preparation.

Elite Discourse and Racism. Teun A. van Dijk / Paperback / Sage, Inc, Newbury Park, CA., 1993 (Amazon price: $24.00).

Earlier books

To order earlier books, visit the Amazon Book Store , and search the store with my name: Teun A. van Dijk, and you'll get a list of some 20 books.

Read this message from Amazon.com!
 
 
 

  Unpublished books and articles

Notice: I welcome comments on all unpublished work below.

See also Current Projects below.

For Bibliographies, see Resources for Discourse Studies

Popularization Discourse and Knowledge about the Genome

(With Helena Calsamiglia). Preliminary draft. April 2003. To be published in 2004 in a special issue of Discourse Studies on the discourse of the human genome project, guest edited by Brigitte Nerlich & Robert Dingwall.

Elite Discourse and Racism in Latin America

October 2002. Spanish version published as a chapter in  Dominación Étnica y Racismo Discursivo en España y América Latina  (Gedisa, Barcelona, 2003).

Elite Discourse and Racism in Spain

October 2002.  Spanish version published as a chapter in  Dominación Étnica y Racismo Discursivo en España y América Latina  (Gedisa, Barcelona, 2003).

Discourse, Knowledge and Ideology

March 2002. 2nd version. Paper for LAUD 2002.

Text and Context of Parliamentary Debates.

July 2001. Final draft of a paper to be published in a book on parliamentary debates edited by Paul Bayley.

Knowledge and News.

February 2001. Spanish version published in Josep V. Gavaldà Roca, Carmen Gregori Signes & Ramon X Rosselló Ivars (Eds.), La cultura mediàtica. Modes de representació i estratègies discursives. (pp. 249-269). Universitat de València. Facultat de Filologia, 2002.

Specialized Discourse and Knowledge

January 2001. First draft of a paper on genetic discourse and knowledge; examples in Spanish. To be published in Festschrift for Ingedore Vilaça Koch (Unicamp, Campinas, Brasil).

Cognitive discourse analysis. An introduction.

October 2000. Spanish version will appear in the Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses.

Ideology and discourse. A multidisciplinary introduction.

English version of an internet course for the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC).

July 2000. Versión castellana. New version of the Spanish version published by Ariel, Barcelona, 2003.

With Ineke van der Valk: Racisme et discours publiques aux Pays-Bas

Published inQuaderni (Paris, 1998).

Categories for the Critical Analysis of Parliamentary Debates about Immigration

Working paper for the "Racism at the Top" project. Version 1.0.; May 14, 1998.

On the Analysis of Parliamentary Debates on Immigration

Working Paper for the Project "Racism at the Top". Version 2. July 1998.

Handout for the paper Categories for the Critical Analysis of Parliamentary Debates about Immigration.

Opinions And Ideologies In Editorials

Paper for the 4th International Symposium of Critical Discourse Analysis, Language, Social Life and Critical Thought, Athens, 14-16 December, 1995.

Bibliografía para Racismo y análisis crítico de los medios (Barcelona: Paidos, 1997).

Lista de referencias correctas para este libro --en que se publicó una bibliografía errada.

Download Older Publications
 

Besides the unpublished articles cited above, there are a number of older publications (books and articles) of mine that can be downloaded from this and other internet sites. Eventually I hope to be able to publish large part of my older publications on this page.

        Books

        Articles

Current Projects

Discourse and Ideology (1995 - )

Long-year project on the theory of ideology and its relation to discourse analysis. After the first book (Ideology, 1998), future books are planned on ideology and social cognition, ideology and society, and ideology and discourse.

Discourse and Knowledge/Discurso y Conocimiento (2002 -2006)

Five-year research project --funded by a Ramón y Cajal Scholarship of the Spanish Government-- proposing a multidisciplinary theory of knowledge and its relation to discourse. With several sub-projects, e.g., on knowledge and news.

Theory of Context (2002-2004)

Project for a multidisciplinary book on context.

Racism and Discourse in Latin America (2002-2005)

International project to study discursive racism in Latin America, with teams from Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Peru.

CRITICS and CRITICS-L List

Information about the CRITICS Foundation

Application form to join the CRITICS-L List

Teaching/Courses 2003-2004.

In the course of academic year 2003-2004 I shall be retiring (early) from the University of Amsterdam, and shall no longer be able to give classes or direct theses there.

I shall continue to be a visiting professor at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, and also teach PhD classes there. For information about the PhD programs of the Dept. of Translation and Philology, and in the Institute of Applied Linguistics (IULA) of the UPF follow this link:

Información sobre estudios del discurso (doctorados en Comunicació Multilingüe y en Lingüística Aplicada) en la UPF, Barcelona, 2003-2005.

Photographs by courtesy of Flavia Limone Reina
(hispanohablantes, visiten su página web, también para enlaces a páginas feministas: www.sexoygenero.arrakis.es/indexpersonal.html

Mailing address:

Teun A. van Dijk
Departament de Traducció i Filologia
La Rambla 32
08002 Barcelona, Spain

E-mail: vandijk?discourse-in-society.org
(when sending mail replace ? in this address by @)
(This is a little trick against SPAM)
Web-site: www.discourse-in-society.org

                                                                                               The Pacific Ocean in front of the house of Pablo Neruda,

                                                                                               Isla Negra (Chile). November 1996.

А.3. Персональна веб-сторінка Девіда Майелла

Welcome to my world! -- David S. Miall

The first version of this home page went online October 12 1995

А.4. Персональна веб-сторінка Жиля Фоконьє

Gilles Fauconnier

Cognitive Science 101C

Cognitive Science 260

Professional information

Books

Publications

Blending and Conceptual Integration

Mental Spaces

Cogling

Analogy, Metaphor, and Integration - a series of talks with critical commentaries

Metaphor Center

International Cognitive Linguistics Association

Cognitive Science Home Page

А.5. Персональна веб-сторінка Віллі ван Піра

Prof. Willie van Peer Ph.D.

Willie van Peer, who was born in Flanders, studied linguistics, literature and philology. He was appointed to the professorship of Intercultural Hermeneutics as successor of Prof. Dr. Dietrich Krusche at the Institute for German as a Foreign Language in October 1997. His main areas of research are the theory of literature, stylistics, comparative studies and the empirical study of literature.

He got his Ph.D. in 1980 in the Department of linguistics of Lancaster University (G-B), with his dissertation The Stylistic Theory of Foregrounding. A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation. After teaching jobs in Belgium and Algeria he worked in Text Linguistics at the university of Tilburg and in Comparative Literature at Utrecht University, both in The Netherlands.

Telephone: +49-89- 2180-2188
or via e-mail: vanpeer@daf.uni-muenchen.de

А.6. Персональна веб-сторінка Джеффрі Ліча

 Geoffrey Leech

Department of Linguistics and Modern English Language

Geoffrey Leech, PhD, FilDr, DLitt, M.A.E., F.B.A.

Posts:

He was Professor of Linguistics and Modern English Language at Lancaster University from 1974 to 1996. He then became Research Professor in English Linguistics. He has been Emeritus Professor in the Department of Linguistics and Modern English Language, Lancaster University, since 2002.

Publications:

He has written, co-authored or co-edited 25 books in the areas of English grammar, literary stylistics, semantics, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics and pragmatics. They include:

        English in Advertising: A Linguistic Study of Advertising in Great Britain (1966)

        A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry (1969)

        Meaning and the English Verb (1971, 2nd ed. 1987, 3rd ed. in preparation)

        A Communicative Grammar of English (with J. Svartvik) (1975, 2nd edn. 1994, 3rd edn. 2002)

        Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose (with M. Short) (1981)

        Principles of Pragmatics (1983)

        A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (with R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum and J. Svartvik) (1985)

        Spoken English on Computer: Transcription, Mark-up and Application (ed. with G. Myers and J. Thomas) (1995)

        Corpus Annotation: Linguistic Information from Computer Text Corpora (ed. with R. Garside and T. McEnery) (1997)

        Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (with D. Biber, S. Johansson, S. Conrad and E. Finegan) (1999)

        Word Frequencies in Written and Spoken English: based on the British National Corpus (with P. Rayson and A. Wilson) (2001)

        Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English (with D. Biber and S. Conrad) (2002)

Full details of these and other publications, including articles and book chapters, can be found in the curriculum vitae.

Research:

A. Corpus Compilation and Annotation

1.  Over the past thirty years a major research interest of his has been the use of computer corpora for the analysis and processing of the English Language. This began in 1970 when Geoff Leech started to build a 1,000,000-word corpus of British English matching as closely as possible the Brown Corpus of written American English, which had recently been completed. The project led eventually to the completion and ‘publication’ of the Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen (LOB) Corpus in 1978.  After this, with Roger Garside, he worked on the word-class tagging of the LOB Corpus. [Research supported by Longman, the British Academy, and the SSRC.]

2.  In 1991-1995 he was leader of the Lancaster team as part of the consortium which built the British National Corpus (1991-1995), a 100,000,000-word database of modern English written texts and spoken transcriptions: http://info.ox.ac.uk/bnc/. Lancaster was responsible for the word-class tagging of the whole BNC. More recently (1995-1999), he worked with Nick Smith on the improvement of the BNC’s word-class tagging, for a second, world-wide release of the corpus (BNC-World) in 2000. [Research supported by the EPSRC] Website:  http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/ucrel/projects.html#bnc

3.  Since 1999 he has been working with Nick Smith (Lancaster), Christian Mair (Freiburg) and Marianne Hundt (Freiburg, Heidelberg) on the word-class tagging and grammatical analysis of the Freiburg-Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen (‘FLOB’) and Freiburg-Brown (‘Frown’) Corpora. These corpora of British and American written English match the LOB and Brown Corpora except that they contain extracts from publications of 1991 and 1992, instead of 1961. This allows us to track changes in the use of English grammar over a thirty-year period, as well as to make controlled contemporary comparisons between American and British English. One further extension of this project is the compilation of a corpus of British English over the period 1926-1931, due to begin in October 2003. This will enable a further diachronic comparison of corpora to track changes in the period prior to that of the Brown and LOB Corpora. [Research supported by the AHRB, the British Academy and the Leverhulme Trust] Website:  http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/ucrel/floblob.html

4. In 2001-2002 Geoff worked with Martin Weisser on the speech-act annotation of a corpus of approximately 1,000 goal-oriented service dialogues. The dialogues include the OASIS Corpus of dialogues made available for this research by British Telecom, and telephone call centre dialogues made available by The Trainline. [The research was supported by the EPSRC] Website: http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/ucrel/projects.html#spaac.

B. Corpus-based Study of English Grammar

Linked with the research topic of corpus compilation and annotation, Geoff Leech has been pursuing a number of different avenues of research on the corpus-based study of English grammar.

1.  He participated in a seven-year project sponsored by Longman and led by Doug Biber (Northern Arizona University), to produce a corpus-based grammar of English, focusing on American and British English and on the four registers of conversation, fiction writing, news writing, and academic writing. The book was eventually published in 1999 as Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (LGSWE) by Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad and Finegan, Three strengths of the book are (a) its extensive investigation of grammatical frequency, (b) its detailed study of differences in the use of grammar in different varieties of language, and (c) its thorough exemplification of present-day English grammar through the citation of thousands of corpus examples. After the publication of this ‘big’ grammar, three members of the team (Biber, Conrad and Leech) wrote a shorter students’ version, Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English, together with an accompanying Workbook.

2. Since his most innovative involvement in LGSWE was working on Chapter 14 ‘The grammar of conversation’, he became particularly interested in how corpora throw light on the nature of grammar in the spoken language. He published two articles and one book chapter on this topic in 2000-2001, the most important being ‘Grammars of spoken English: New implications of corpus-oriented research’, Language Learning, 50: 3, 675-724.

3. Out of the improved word-class tagging of the BNC (see A.2 above) came the opportunity to produce a book, with Paul Rayson and Andrew Wilson, on Word Frequency in Written and Spoken English (2001). Crucial to this book was the grammatical tagging of the BNC so that frequencies – albeit with a small margin of error – could be attached to lexemes and their grammatical variants. The BNC re-tagging also allowed frequencies, including frequencies of grammatical word classes, to be compared across different varieties of language in the corpus (notably spoken v. written English). This was the most advanced word frequency book of the English language yet published.

4.  In collaboration with Christian Mair, Marianne Hundt and Nick Smith, he has worked on the comparable corpora mentioned in A.4 above, as well as other data, to investigate recent changes in English grammar. His publications in this area include 'Modality on the move: the English modal auxiliaries 1961-1992', in Roberta Facchinetti, Manfred Krug and Frank Palmer (eds.) Modality in Contemporary English, Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003; also a forthcoming chapter on ‘Current changes in English syntax’, with Christian Mair, to be published in The Handbook of English Linguistics (CUP), ed. Bas Aarts and April McMahon.

C. Other Research Interests

1. Pragmatics has recently become one of his active research interests once again, after a gap of twenty years. This is partly through work on the compilation of a speech-act annotated corpus (A.4 above) and partly through a revival of interest in the pragmatics of polite communication: see a forthcoming article in the International Journal of Pragmatics, ‘Towards an anatomy of politeness in communication’.

2. Stylistics is another area of interest which has lapsed in recent years: but he still cherishes hopes of returning to the linguistic study of literature. A book, giving an overview of literary stylistics 1965-2000 and consisting partly of revised versions of previously published papers, articles and chapters, is already in an advanced stage of preparation.

А.7. Персональна веб-сторінка Мартіна Бола

This is the Home Page of Martin J. Ball, Ph.D.

University of Louisiana at Lafayette
Department of Communicative Disorders
P.O.Box 43170, Lafayette, LA 70504-3170
Phone: (337) 482-1077  Fax: (337) 482-6195
E-mail: mjball@louisiana.edu

Job Title
Hawthorne-BORSF Endowed Professor II, Head of Department, and Director of the Doris B. Hawthorne Center for Special Education and Communicative Disorders

Favorite Links

          International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association

          Multilingual Matters book series 'Communication Disorders Across Languages'

          International Phonetic Association

          International Society of Phonetic Sciences

          British Association of Academic Phoneticians

          Linguistics Association of Great Britain

          Linguistics Society of America

          LinguistList

          foNETiks

          Phonet

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Contact Information
E-mail address
mailto:mjball@louisiana.edu
Web address
http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~mjb0372/mjball.html
Office phone
(337) 482-1077

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Current Projects

        "Communication Disorders Across Languages"

        Analysis of Disordered Vowel Systems

        Reliability in the transcription of disordered speech and voice

        Languages of Britain project: Welsh

        Publications

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Biographical Information

I studied Linguistics and English Literature at the University of Wales, Bangor for my B.A., and later took an M.A. in Linguistics and Phonetics at the University of Essex (England). After a year working as an Assistant Lecturer at the University of Al Fateh, Sebha, in Libya, I was appointed as Senior Lecturer in Linguistics and Phonetics at the Cardiff School of Speech Therapy (now part of the University of Wales Institute Cardiff ) in 1978. This coincided with the rapid growth of interest in clinical linguistics (the interaction of linguistics and speech-language pathology), and I founded the journal Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics (published by Taylor and Francis ) in 1987. Today, I am co-Editor of this journal with Dr T W Powell of LSUHSC , Shreveport.

I obtained my Ph.D. from the University of Wales (Cardiff) in Welsh linguistics in 1985, having also passed the University ’s Certificate in Welsh as a Second Language. I was Founder Editor of the Journal of Celtic Linguistics , and edited this journal from 1990 To 1994. I am currently on the Editorial Boards of Advances in Speech-Language Pathology , Journal of Celtic Linguistics , and Journal of Celtic Language Learning .

In 1987 I took up a post at the University of Glamorgan in Wales, and moved from there in 1991 to the University of Ulster at Jordanstown in Northern Ireland, where I taught on both the Speech and Language Therapy degree and the Linguistic Science degree. I was promoted to Reader in 1993 and to full Professor in 1997. I joined U.L. Lafayette in August 2000, as Hawthorne-BORSF Distinguished Professor I, and was appointed Head of Department and Director of the Doris B. Hawthorne Center for Special Education and Communicative Disorders in April 2004.

I have published widely on both clinical linguistic issues, and Celtic linguistics, having authored or edited nearly 20 books, 30 contributions to collections, and over 50 refereed papers. I have also presented at many conferences. My current publications list is available here . At the Edinburgh Conference in 2000, I was elected President of the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association . We hosted the 10th convention at Lafayette in 2004, when I was re-elected President.

Personal Interests

          Welsh language

          Cricket and UL Cricket

          Classical Music

          Vexillology

          Philately

                        View of my room

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Last revised: 22 April 2004

А.8. Персональна веб-сторінка Ноама Хомського

А.9. Персональна веб-сторінка Джеймса Ф. Аллена

James F. Allen, URCS Faculty Member

b. 1950. Ph.D. (1979) University of Toronto. Assistant Professor (79-84), Associate Professor (84-87), Department Chair (87-90), Professor (87-present), Dessauer Chair (92-present); University of Rochester. Editor-in-Chief, Computational Linguistics (83-93; Presidential Young Investigator (84-89); author of Natural Language Understanding, Benjamin Cummings (87), 2nd edition (1995); Reasoning About Plans, Morgan Kaufmann (91); co-editor of Readings in Planning, Morgan Kaufmann (90); Fellow of the AAAI.

James Allen's research interests span a range of issues covering natural language understanding, discourse, knowledge representation, common-sense reasoning and planning. A paper about the current state of AI given at the 1998 AAAI conference can be found here These areas of research are combined in the TRAINS project, a long term effort co-directed with Len Schubert. The TRAINS system is an intelligent planning assistant that can converse in spoken natural language with a person to create, discuss and evaluate various plans involving freight shipments by train. In particular, Allen's research breaks down into two main subareas, broadly classified as research in discourse and research in plan reasoning.

The research in discourse is focused on two-person extended dialogs in which the speakers have specific tasks to accomplish. An emphasis in this work is the representation and use of the context of the dialog to solve problems in semantic interpretations and the recognition of the intentions underlying the speakers' utterances. Work in this area has included developing the first computational model of speech acts, the development of a multi-level plan-based analysis involving discourse-level plans as well as domain-level plans, and the development of several different discourse-plan recognition algorithms. In addition, we are exploring how prosody and intonation signals discourse intentions and how this interacts with the plan-based dialog model. While it is important for work to be formally well-defined and understood, it is equally important that computational theories can lead to effective implementations. As a result, a considerable amount of effort has also been made in developing an expressive hybrid knowledge representation system that can support complex reasoning about plans and actions.

The research in plan reasoning draws much of its motivation from the dialog work. In particular, the representation of plans must support a wide range of different forms of reasoning: plan construction (i.e. traditional planning), plan recognition, plan evaluation, and the communication of plans between agents. Much of our work in this area has focused on the representation of time and action, and we have reformulated the planning problem as a problem in temporal reasoning. Within this framework, we have developed a representation of plans that is temporally explicit and supports plan construction, recognition and communication. We are also exploring methods of temporal reasoning that are viable even with large data sets of temporal information

А.10. Персональна веб-сторінка Беса Аартса

I am a linguist working as a Reader in Modern English Language in the Department of English Language and Literature at University College London. I am also the Director of the Survey of English Usage, an English language research unit based in the English Department.

My research interest within English language studies is in the field of syntax, more specifically verbal syntax. Both my PhD dissertation, which was published in 1992 (Small Clauses in English: the nonverbal types, Mouton de Gruyter), and a book I edited with Charles F. Meyer (The verb in contemporary English: theory and description, Cambridge University Press, 1995) focus on this area. My approach has been to apply the generative theoretical framework to the study of English syntax.

I have written an undergraduate textbook (English syntax and argumentation) which aims to teach students the fundamentals of syntax as well as of linguistic argumentation. This book was published in 1997 by Macmillan in the Modern Linguistics series. The second edition was published in May 2001 by Palgrave. (A Korean translation came out in 2002).

Published in 2002: Exploring natural language: working with the British component of the International Corpus of English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. (With Gerald Nelson and Sean Wallis).

Together with David Denison, Evelien Keizer and Gergana Popova I am working on a new book entitled Fuzzy grammar: a reader to be published by Oxford University Press.

Forthcoming (2004): The handbook of English linguistics. Malden MA: Blackwell Publishers. (Edited, with April McMahon).

My publications also include a large number of articles and reviews.

I teach Modern English Language both at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. For more information, see the UCL English Department website.

I am on the Editorial Board of the Cambridge University Press series Studies in English Language, and together with David Denison and Richard Hogg at Manchester I edit the journal English Language and Linguistics, published by Cambridge University Press.

To e-mail me, click on this link: b.aarts@ucl.ac.uk

Photograph 

А.11. Персональна веб-сторінка Дженніфер Арнолд

А.12. Персональна веб-сторінка Реувена Цура

Reuven Tsur
Full Professor
in the Dept. of Hebrew Literature

Reuven Tsur was born in 1932 in Nagyvárad, Transylvania, which is sometimes Roumania, sometimes Hungary. His mother tongue is Hungarian. He has a BA in English and Hebrew Literature from the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, and a D.Phil. in English from the University of Sussex.

Reuven Tsur is Professor Emeritus of Hebrew Literature at Tel Aviv University, served several terms as the director of the Katz Research Institute for Hebrew Literature. He has been visiting professor at the Hebrew University, at Columbia University, and at the University of Lancaster. He participated in an indefinite number of international conferences in semiotics, comparative literature, cognitive studies, literature and psychology, linguistics, and empirical aesthetics. He has been research fellow at the University of Southampton and at Yale University. He was introduced into the mysteries of speech research at the Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, and at the University of Lancaster. He is Vice President for the Middle East of the International Association for Empirical Aesthetics, and a member of the editorial board of Empirical Studies of the Arts, of Psyart - a hyperlink e-journal, and of Versification: An Electronic Journal of Literary Prosody, as well as of the advisory board of the URL Literature, Cognition & the Brain.

Reuven Tsur has developed a theory of Cognitive Poetics, and applied it to rhyme, sound symbolism, poetic rhythm, metaphor, poetry and altered states of consciousness, period style, genre, archetypal patterns, translation theory, the implied critic's decision style, and critical competence. In his books and articles he applied his theories to English, French, German, Hungarian, and Hebrew poetry, ranging from the eleventh to the twentieth century. His Perception-Oriented Theory of Metre includes a theory of the rhythmical performance of poetry which, after 25 years of agonising search, he found a way to submit to an instrumental investigation. He has recently finished this instrumental research and published its results (see below the list of Major Publications. His book Poetic Rhythm, Structure and Performance (1998) has been published by Peter Lang).

He teaches courses in cognitive poetics; the phonetics of poetic language and its relationship to meaning; interpretation; basic issues in poetic theory; a cognitive approach to religious and mystic poetry; the grotesque; romantic and anti-romantic elements in Modern Hebrew Poetry; a perspectivistic approach to Mediaeval Hebrew Poetry; literature of extreme situations; metaphor; critical competence and the critic's decision style; poetic drama; elements of drama.

In 1996-97 he taught the courses: The Phonetics of Poetic Language and its Relationship to Meaning; The Grotesque in Literature and in the Visual Arts (with Prof. Nurith Kna'an-Kedar); Basic Issues in Poetic Theory.

In 1997-98 he taught the courses: What is Interpretation?; A Perspectivistic Approach to Mediaeval Hebrew Poetry; Basic Issues in Poetic Theory.

In 1998-99 he teaches the courses: The Phonetics of Poetic Language and its Relationship to Meaning; Cognitive Poetics--Basic Issues; A Perspectivistic Approach to Mediaeval Hebrew Poetry; Basic Issues in Poetic Theory.

А.13. Персональна веб-сторінка Джорджа Пола Лендоу

Biographical Materials

        Brief Biography

        Education

        Family Matters

        Community Service

Print and Electronic Publications

        Books and Monographs

        Chapters and Essays in Books

        Essays and Notes

        Reviews

        Nonacademic publications and photographs

        Individual Websites

o         Prizes awarded to Websites

        Electronic Publications

Professional Activities

        Fellowships and Special Honors

        Consultancies

        Lectures (and Lecture Schedule)

        Teaching

o         Teaching Positions

o         Courses at Brown: Descriptions and Syllabi

        Service to University and Profession

        Selected Print, Television, and Web Interviews

        Listed in

А.14. Персональна веб-сторінка Коллін Фітцджералд

Colleen M. Fitzgerald, Assistant Professor, received her Ph.D. in linguistics from the University of Arizona. Before coming to Buffalo, she was on the faculty at the University of Pittsburgh and San Jose State University. Her research addresses issues in phonological theory and description, focusing on prosody, meter, phonological phrasing, and prosodic morphology. She is especially interested in the examination of how stress is manipulated in a language's morphology, syntax and poetic meter. Her research has involved descriptive and theoretical work on the stress system of Tohono O'odham (Papago), a Uto-Aztecan language spoken in Arizona. This research has led to a model of how morphemes and stress interact in Optimality Theory. Her other research interests include field techniques for recording prosodic variables, and Native American languages, especially those spoken in the Southwest. Some recent publications include "The Meter of Tohono O'odham Songs" "Destressing in the Clitic Group" "Prosody Drives the Syntax: O'odham Rhythm" and "Degenerate Feet and Morphology in Tohono O'odham".

А.15. Персональна веб-сторінка Джойс МакДоноу

А.16. Персональна веб-сторінка Девіда Дауті

David Dowty

Professor of Linguistics

Autumn Quarter 2002 Schedule:

Classes and meetings:

M,W,F 11:30 am-01:20 pm - 680(DB 030)

M 03:30 pm-05:00 pm - Meeting

Office Hours:

W,F 03:30 pm - 04:30 pm
Other times by appointment

Office Address:

Linguistics, 209 Oxley Hall
Ohio State University
1712 Neil Avenue
Columbus, OH 43210

Email:

dowty@ling.ohio-state.edu

Phone/Fax:

Office phone: 614 292-5400
FAX: 614 292-4273

Course Materials

Linguistics 383, Words and Meanings, SP 2003

Research Areas

Semantic and Syntactic Theory
Lexical Semantics and Thematic Roles
Categorial Grammars
Semantics of Tense and Aspect

Current Research Interests

Grammatical relations and thematic roles in categorial and type-logical grammar. Lexical Semantics and Lexical Rules. The semantic correlates of complement diatheses (`argument alternations').

 In syntax, linguistic applications of Categorial Grammar (Type Logical Grammar); including non-constituent coordination, wrapping in multi-modal categorial grammars, and the logic of downward monotonicity in natural language and its manifestation in negative polarity and negative concord.

Додаток Б

Уривки з електронних текстів персональних веб-сторінок лінгвістів

Б.1. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням

Publication List & Short Vita на персональній веб-сторінці Тойна ван Дейка

CURRICULUM VITAE (Summary)

Teun A. van Dijk (1943) studied French Language and Literature at the Free University (Amsterdam), and Theory of Literature at the (City) University of Amsterdam, in which he obtained degrees equivalent to an M.A., and got his Ph.D. in Linguistics from the Faculty of Letters of the University of Amsterdam.

He also studied for a year (1965) in Strasbourg (France), at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes (now Ecole des Etudes en Sciences Sociales) in Paris (1969), and at the University of California, at Berkeley (1973).

He was lecturer and senior lecturer from 1968 to 1980 in the Dept, of General Literary Studies of the University of Amsterdam, where he had a personal chair of Discourse Studies from 1980 until his early retirement in 2004.

He held visiting professorships at the University of Bielefeld, at the University of Puerto Rico (twice), at the Colegio de Mexico, the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM), the University of Campinas (Brazil), the University of Recife (Brazil) and the Universities of Rio de Janeiro. He lectured widely in Europe and the Americas, as well as in other countries.

Teun A. van Dijk will retire early (in 2004) from the University of Amsterdam and is visiting professor in the Dept. of Translation and Philology of the Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, since 1999.

Б.2. Електронний текст, прихований під гіперпосиланням

Short Biographical Note на персональній веб-сторінці Тойна ван Дейка

Short biographical note Teun A. van Dijk

Teun A. van Dijk was professor of discourse studies at the University of Amsterdam until 2004, and is at present professor at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona. After earlier work on generative poetics, text grammar, and the psychology of text processing, his work since 1980 takes a more "critical" perspective and deals with discursive racism, news in the press, ideology, knowledge and context. He is the author of several books in most of these areas, and he edited “The Handbook of Discourse Analysis” (4 vols, 1985) and the recent introduction “Discourse Studies” (2 vols., 1997). He founded 4 international journals, “Poetics”, “Text”, “Discourse & Society”, and “Discourse Studies”, of which he still edits the latter two. His last monograph is “Ideology” (1998), and his last edited book (with Ruth Wodak), “Racism at the Top” (2000). He is currently working on a new book on the theory of context. Teun van Dijk, who holds two honorary doctorates, has lectured widely in many countries, especially also in Latin America. For a list of publications, recent articles, resources for discourse studies and other information, see his homepage: www.discourse-in-society.org.

Б.3. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням Popularization Discourse and Knowledge about the Genome

на персональній веб-сторінці Тойна ван Дейка

Popularization Discourse and Knowledge about the Genome

Helena Calsamiglia,

Teun A. van Dijk

Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona

Abstract

In this paper we examine some properties of the interface between meaning and knowledge in popularization discourse in the Spanish press about the sequencing of the human genome. After a multidisciplinary account of popularization in terms of text, context and knowledge, we analyze some semantic aspects of 42 texts in El País, focusing especially on denominations, explanations and the description of new objects. Besides the usual metaphors conceptualizing the genome in terms of a code or a book, and sequencing as decodification, we especially found that descriptions of new objects tend to be organized by a limited number of fundamental categories, such as Location, Composition, Size, Quantity, Appearance and Functions. We surmise that these meaning categories correspond to underlying cognitive categories that organize the schematic structure of knowledge about things. Both in the discursive as well as in the epistemic analysis of these texts, we are specifically also interested in the strategies of specialized journalists for the management of knowledge: what knowledge is being presupposed, what knowledge is being “reminded” or actualized and what knowledge is expressed and newly constructed.

Keywords: Popularization discourse, science communication, explanation strategies, knowledge, press, human genome, context, El País.

Б.4. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням

Discourse, Knowledge and Ideology

на персональній веб-сторінці Тойна ван Дейка

Discourse, Knowledge and Ideology

Reformulating Old Questions

Teun A, van Dijk

Universitat Pompeu Fabra

(Second version. March 22, 2002)

Comments welcome!

Introduction

In this paper I would like to reformulate a number of old questions and make some new proposals about the relationships between discourse, knowledge and ideology. This is obviously a vast field, so that in a single paper we can only touch upon a few issues. One of these issues is the question whether all our knowledge is ideological, as is often assumed, also in critical discourse analysis. Another issue is how ideology and knowledge are managed in discourse production and comprehension. 

The present discussion takes place within my earlier research on ideology (Van Dijk, 1998), and on the basis of my current work on knowledge and its relation to discourse (e.g., Van Dijk, 2002).

More traditional approaches to ideology negatively define it in terms of misguided beliefs, false consciousness or similarly vague notions (for historical surveys, see, e.g.,Billig, 1982; Eagleton, 1991; Larraín, 1979). In more recent work, for instance in political science or social psychology, ideologies are simply taken to be belief systems (see, e.g., Freeden, 1996).

Although integrating some aspects of these earlier approaches, I have proposed to develop a new, multidisciplinary theory of ideology basically defined in terms of the foundation of the shared social representations of social groups (Van Dijk, 1998). For instance, a racist ideology could be the basis of the attitudes people share about immigration, integration or foreigners on the labor market. Such ideologies are not arbitrary collections of social beliefs, but specific group schemata, organized by a number of categories that represent the identity, the social structure and position of the group, such as ‘our’ appearance, activities, aims, norms, group relations and resources.

Many questions are still unresolved in this tentative theoretical framework, such as the precise relations between social group structures and the mental organization of ideologies: Indeed, what groups typically develop ideologies and which do not?

One fundamental problem is the relation between ideologies and other social representations shared by groups and their members. Thus, I just suggested that ideologies are typically the basis of social attitudes. We may for instance have progressive, conservative, feminist or anti-feminist opinions about, for instance, abortion, divorce and many gender relations. That is, attitudes are (also) organized in terms of their underlying ideologies. Indeed, it is often through their (expressed) attitudes about social issues that we recognize a racist or an antiracist person when we meet one. 

Since socially shared knowledge is also a form of social representation, it would follow that if ideologies are the basis of social representations, also our knowledge is ideologically biased. This is indeed often the case, and much modern work on ideology assumes just that, namely that our socially shared knowledge cannot possibly ‘escape’ its ideological boundedness (Fairclough, 1995; Laclau; 1979; for discussion, see also žižek, 1994),

Although this thesis may well be (roughly) true for some kinds of knowledge and groups, I think it is too strong, too vague and too general, and should be rejected. In other words, in my theoretical framework it would simply be inconsistent to assume that all knowledge is ideological. Rather, I propose that each culture has a Common Ground of generally shared, undisputed, and hence un-ideological or pre-ideological knowledge. 

Such cultural knowledge may well be found ‘ideologically biased’ by other cultures, by people of the same culture in another period, or indeed by a critical analyst. The crucial criterion, however, is that within the group itself there is consensus about the fact that their shared Common Ground knowledge is ‘true’, and not an ideological fiction. This may appear for instance in the fact that such knowledge is generally presupposed in such a culture, also among groups that are ideological opponents.

Notice that I do not propose to re-establish the old opposition between knowledge and ideology, where knowledge is simply true belief, or the sociological ‘facts’, and ideology false belief, as is the case in most classical disputes, both Marxist and anti-Marxist (see, e.g., Mannheim, 1936). We shall see that group knowledge may well be ideological, but that there must be cultural knowledge that is generally shared and pre-ideological in a culture.

Б.5. Уривок із англомовного електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням Vita на персональній веб-сторінці Девіда Майелла

DAVID S. MIALL

Professor

Department of English, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, T6G 2E5

Experience | Forthcoming publications | Publications | Conference papers | Conferences organized | Associations | Citations

Married to Sylvia Chard, Professor of Elementary Education, University of Alberta.

Fuller details of publications in reader response are available (some authored with Don Kuiken).

EXPERIENCE

EDUCATION

        Brighton, Hove and Sussex Grammar School, 1957-1963

        Guildhall School of Music, London, 1963-1967

        Martin Musical Scholarship; for conducting, Munich, 1968

        University of Stirling, Scotland, 1972-1976

        University of Wales, 1976-1979

DEGREES

A.G.S.M. (Pianoforte), Guildhall School, 1967

B.A. Hons (1st Class) in English Literature University of Stirling, 1976

Ph.D (University of Wales), English Literature, 1980

ACADEMIC POSITIONS

Tutorial Fellow, Department of English, University College, Cardiff, Wales, 1976-1979

Lecturer in English, College of St. Paul & St. Mary, Cheltenham, England, 1979-1989

        Senior Lecturer, April 1981

        Research Director, Faculty of Arts, March 1985

        Principal Lecturer, September 1986

Post-Doctoral Fellow, Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, U.S.A., 1982-1983

Visiting Assistant Professor, Faculty of Arts, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada 1989-1990 (Nov-Feb)

Assistant Professor, Department of English, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, 1990-1992

        Associate Professor, 1992-2000

        Full Professor, 2000

ACADEMIC EXPERIENCE

AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, CARDIFF: Teaching over a range of English literature, from Chaucer to the 20th Century. The Doctoral work was completed during the period at Cardiff.

AT CHELTENHAM: The main courses taught formed part of the English component of a B.A. Combined Studies degree: Introduction to Poetry; Shakespeare and His Contemporaries; Romantic Period; Early 20th Century Literature; Modern Literary Theory. Taught computer methods courses for Humanities students. Chaired the College's Research Committee for three years, 1986-89.

Member of the English Board of the Council for National Academic Awards from 1983 to 1988 and a specialist advisor on Information Technology. Chaired a commission for the Council, on Information Technology in the Arts and Humanities, 1987-89.

Founded the Friends of Coleridge in 1987, an association centered on Coleridge Cottage in Nether Stowey, Somerset. Organized several conferences on Coleridge; edited the Coleridge Bulletin (1988-91), which now appears twice a year. Editor of several issues of The Wordsworth Circle based on the Biennial Coleridge Summer Conference.

AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA: Courses taught in British Romantic Literature, Gothic Fiction, The Short Story, Hypertext Theory, Humanities Computing, Bibliography and Research Methods, and introductory English courses.

PUBLICATIONS

FORTHCOMING

"Romanticism in the Electronic Age." In Nicholas Roe, Ed., Romanticism: An Oxford Guide (Oxford UP, 2004).

Kuiken, D., Miall, D. S., & Sikora, S. (in press). "Forms of Self-implication in Literary reading." Poetics Today.

"'Too soon transplanted': Coleridge and the Forms of Dislocation." In Willie van Peer, Ed., The Quality of Literature. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, ms pp. 45.

PUBLICATIONS

SOFTWARE

David S. Miall and Duncan Wu, Eds. Romanticism: The CD-ROM (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1997). Contains approximately 2 million words and over 1200 images.

EDITED BOOKS (sole editor)

Metaphor: Problems and Perspectives (Sussex, England: Harvester Press, & New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1982), pp. xix + 172.

The Evaluation of Information Technology in the Arts and Humanities (Bath, U.K.: Computers in Teaching Initiative Support Service, 1988), pp. 58.

Humanities and the Computer: New Directions (Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 212.

CHAPTERS IN BOOKS

"A Repertory Grid Study of Response to Poetry," in F. Fransella & L. Thomas, Eds., Experimenting with Personal Construct Psychology, pp. 539-547 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1988).

"Story and Affect: A Model of Story Understanding," in Clare Hanson, Ed., Re-reading the Short Story, pp. 121-133 (London: Macmillan, 1989).

"An Expert System Approach to Interpretation in Literary Response," in R. Ennals and J-P. Gardin Eds., Interpretation in the Humanities: Perspectives from Artificial Intelligence, pp. 196-214 (London: British Library, 1990).

"Introduction" and "Rethinking English Studies: the Role of the Computer," in David S. Miall, Ed., Humanities and the Computer: New Directions, pp. 1-12, 49-59 (Oxford University Press, 1990).

"The Romantic Lyric," and "Wedgwood," in L. Dabundo, Ed., Romanticism: An Encyclopedia, pp. 350-2, 609-10 (Garland, 1992).

"Response to Poetry: Studies of Language and Structure," in Elaine F. Nardocchio, Ed., Reader Response: The Empirical Dimension, pp. 153-170 (Mouton de Gruyter, 1992).

"Beyond the Word: Reading and the Computer," George P. Landow and Paul Delany, Eds., The Digital Word: Text-Based Computing in the Humanities, pp. 319-342 (MIT Press, 1993).

"'I see it feelingly': Coleridge's Debt to Hartley," in Tim Fulford and Morton D. Paley, Eds., Coleridge's Visionary Languages (Boydell & Brewer, 1993), 151-163.

"Constructing Understanding: Emotion and Literary Response," in Deanne Bogdan and Stanley B. Straw, Eds., Constructive Reading: Teaching Beyond Communication (Boynton/Cook, 1993), pp. 63-81.

"Representing and Interpreting Literature by Computer," Yearbook of English Studies, 25: Non-Standard Englishes and the New Media (Modern Humanities Research Association, 1995), pp. 199-212.

"Thomas Beddoes, 1760-1808" and "Sir James Mackintosh, 1765-1832," in Gary Kelly and Edd Applegate, Eds., British Reform Writers 1789-1832 (Bruccoli Clark Layman,1996), 17-24, 184-193.

"Empowering the reader: Literary response and classroom learning," in Roger J. Kreuz and Mary Sue MacNealy, Eds., Empirical Approaches to Literature and Aesthetics (Ablex, 1996), pp. 463-478.

"Gothic Fiction," in Duncan Wu, Ed., The Blackwell Companion to Romanticism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), 345-354.

"The Project Method in the Literature Classroom," in Louann Reid and Jeff Golub, Eds., Reflective Activities: Helping Students Connect with Texts (National Council of Teachers of English, 1999), pp. 149-155. [online version]

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Aspetti della recezione letteraria: un nuovo questionario," in Aldo Nemesio, Ed. & Trans., L'esperienza del testo ( Rome: Meltemi, 1999), pp. 111-125.

"The Preceptor as Fiend: Radcliffe's Psychology of the Gothic," in Laura Dabundo, Ed., Jane Austen and Mary Shelley and Their Sisters (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2000), pp. 31-43.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Shifting Perspectives: Readers' Feelings and Literary Response," in W. Van Peer & S. Chatman, Eds., New Perspectives on Narrative Perspective (New York: SUNY Press, 2001), pp. 289-301.

"An Evolutionary Framework for Literary reading," in Gerard Steen & Dick Schram, Eds., The Psychology and Sociology of Literature: In Honour of Elrud Ibsch (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001), pp. 407-419.

"Literary Discourse," in Arthur C. Graesser, Morton Ann Gernsbacher, & Susan R. Goldman, Eds., Handbook of Discourse Processes (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003), pp. 321-355.

Gao Wei, David S. Miall, and Don Kuiken. "The Receptivity of Canadian Readers to Chinese Literature," in James Gifford and Gabrielle Zezulka-Mailloux, Eds., Culture and the State: Nationalisms (Edmonton: CRC Studio Publishers, 2004), pp. 93-101.

ARTICLES IN REFEREED JOURNALS

"Aesthetic Unity and the Role of the Brain," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 35 (1976): 57-67.

"Metaphor and Literary Meaning," British Journal of Aesthetics, 17 (1977): 49-59.

"Metaphor as a Thought-Process," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 38 (1979): 21-28.

"Kant's Critique of Judgement: A Biased Aesthetics," British Journal of Aesthetics, 20 (1980): 135-145.

"The Meaning of Dreams: Coleridge's Ambivalence," Studies in Romanticism, 21 (1982): 57-71.

"The Aesthetics of Love in Coleridge," British Journal of Aesthetics, 23 (1983): 18-24.

"Guilt and Death: The Predicament of the Ancient Mariner," Studies in English Literature, 24 (1984): 633-653.

"Designed Horror: James's Vision of Evil in The Turn of the Screw," Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 39 (1984): 305-327.

"Coleridge's Dread Book of Judgement: A Memory for Life," Journal of European Studies, 15 (1985): 233-246.

"The Structure of Response: A Repertory Grid Study of a Poem," Research in the Teaching of English, 19 (1985): 254-268.

"Emotion and the Self: The Context of Remembering," British Journal of Psychology, 77 (1986): 389-397.

"Design Principles for the Computer-Assisted Management of Literary Response," Future Computing Systems, 1 (1986): 217-231.

"Authorizing the Reader," English Quarterly, 19 (1986): 186-195.

"Metaphor and Affect: The Problem of Creative Thought," Journal of Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 2 (1987): 81-96.

"Learning in Autonomous Student Groups: Learning Skills as a Predictor of Satisfaction," Studies in Educational Evaluation, 13 (1987): 175-183.

"Affect and Narrative: A Model of Response to Stories," Poetics, 17 (1988): 259-272.

"The Indeterminacy of Literary Texts: The View from the Reader," Journal of Literary Semantics, 17 (1988): 155-171.

"Beyond the Schema Given: Affective Comprehension of Literary Narratives," Cognition and Emotion, 3 (1989): 55-78.

"Welcome the Crisis! Rethinking Learning Methods in English Studies," Studies in Higher Education, 14 (1989): 69-81.

"Anticipating the Self: Towards a Personal Construct Model of Emotion," International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology, 2 (1989): 185-198.

"The Displacement of Emotions: the Case of 'Frost at Midnight'," The Wordsworth Circle, 20 (1989): 97-102.

"Education, Authority, and Literary Response: A New Model," English Quarterly, 22 (1990): 7-19.

"Personal Librarian: a Tool for the Literature Classroom," Literary and Linguistic Computing, 5 (1990): 19-23.

"Readers' Responses to Narrative: Evaluating, Relating, Anticipating," Poetics, 19 (1990): 323-339.

"Construing Experience: Coleridge on Emotion," The Wordsworth Circle, 22 (1991): 35-39.

"The Campaign to Acquire Coleridge Cottage," The Wordsworth Circle, 22 (1991): 82-88.

"Estimating Changes in Collocations of Key Words Across a Large Text: A Case Study of Coleridge's Notebooks," Computers and the Humanities, 26 (1992): 1-12.

"Wordsworth and The Prelude: the Problematics of Feeling," Studies in Romanticism, 31 (1992): 233-253.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Foregrounding, Defamiliarization, and Affect: Response to Literary Stories," Poetics, 22 (1994): 389-407.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Beyond Text Theory: Understanding Literary Response," co-authored with Don Kuiken, Discourse Processes, 17 (1994): 337-352.

"Beyond Cognitivism: Studying Readers": Peer commentary on Herbert Simon, "Literary Criticism: A Cognitive Approach," Stanford Humanities Review (1994): 82-84.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Aspects of Literary Response: A New Questionnaire," Research in the Teaching of English 29 (1995): 37-58.

"Anticipation and Feeling in Literary Response: A Neuropsychological Perspective," Poetics 23 (1995): 275-298.

"Electronic Romanticism: The CD," Romanticism on the Net 1 (January 1996). http://users.ox.ac.uk/~scat0385/rom_cd.html

"The Self in History: Wordsworth, Tarkovsky, and Autobiography," The Wordsworth Circle 27 (1996): 9-13.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., eds., special double issue, "Coleridge and Dreams," Dreaming 7:1-2 (1997), including Miall & Kuiken, "Coleridge and Dreams: An Introduction," 1-11.

"The Body in Literature: Mark Johnson, Metaphor, and Feeling," Journal of Literary Semantics, 26 (1997): 191-210.

"The Alps Deferred: Wordsworth at the Simplon Pass," European Romantic Review, 9 (1998): 87-102.

Miall, D S., & Kuiken, D., "The Form of Reading: Empirical Studies of Literariness," Poetics, 25 (1998): 327-341.

"The Hypertextual Moment," English Studies in Canada, 24 (1998): 157-174. (See Honours)

Dobson, T., & Miall, D. S. "Orienting the reader? A Study of Literary Hypertexts," Spiel, 17 (1998): 249-261.

"Trivializing or Liberating? The Limitations of Hypertext Theorizing," Mosaic, 32 (1999): 157-172. [online]

"The Resistance of Reading: Romantic Hypertexts and Pedagogy," Romanticism on the Net, 16 (November 1999). http://users.ox.ac.uk/~scat0385/reading.html

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "What is Literariness? Three Components of Literary Reading," Discourse Processes, 28 (1999): 121-138.

Review article on Richard J. Gerrig, Experiencing Narrative Worlds (1993), Journal of Pragmatics, 32 (2000): 377-382.

"On the necessity of empirical studies of literary reading," Frame, 14 (2000): 43-59.

"Locating Wordsworth: 'Tintern Abbey' and the Community with Nature," Romanticism on the Net 20 (November 2000). http://www-sul.stanford.edu/mirrors/romnet/20miall.html

Kuiken, D., and Miall, D. S., "Numerically Aided Phenomenology: Procedures for Investigating Categories of Experience," FQS. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 2.1 (January 2001). http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs/.

"Sounds of contrast: An empirical approach to phonemic iconicity," Poetics, 29 (2001): 55-70.

Miall, D. S., & Dobson, T. (2001). Reading hypertext and the experience of literature. Journal of Digital Information, 2.1. Online at http://jodi.ecs.soton.ac.uk/Articles/v02/i01/Miall/

"The Library versus the Internet: Literary Studies Under Siege?" PMLA 116 (2001): 1405-1414.

Review article on Maria-Laure Ryan, Narrative as Virtual Reality: Immersion and Interactivity in Literature and Electronic Media (2001), and N. Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics (1999). Comparative Literature Studies, 39 (2002),: 259-262.

Kuiken, D., Bears, M., Miall, D. S., and Smith, L. "Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing Facilitates Attentional Orienting." Imagination, Cognition, and Personality 21 (2001-02): 3-20.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D. "A Feeling for Fiction: Becoming What We Behold." Poetics 30 (2002): 221-241.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "The Effects of Local Phonetic Contrasts in Readers' Responses to a Short Story." Empirical Studies of the Arts 20 (2002): 157-175.

Review article on Raymond J. Gibbs, Intentions in the Experience of Meaning (1999). Journal of Pragmatics 35 (2003): 149-154.

Miall, D. S., & Dissanayake, E. "The Poetics of Babytalk." Human Nature 14 (2003): 337-364.

"Reading Hypertext: Theoretical Ambitions and Empirical Studies." Jahrbuch fьr Computerphilologie 5 (2003): 161-178. Online: http://computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/jg03/miall.html

OTHER PUBLICATIONS

"Coleridge: The Moment of Poetry," Start, No. 23 (Sept, 1985), 15-17.

"Computers and English Literature: Implications for Learning," Humanities Communication Newsletter, 11 (1989), 4-8.

Editor, Teaching English Studies with Computers: An Informal Casebook. Cheltenham: College of St Paul & St Mary, Faculty of Arts, 1989, pp. 60.

Book review article: "The Teaching of Literature Reconsidered," Studies in Higher Education, 14 (1989), 356-358.

"Changing the Self: The Affective Plot in Literary Narratives," The British Psychological Society: Psychotherapy Section Newsletter, No. 8 (June 1990), 30-39.

"The Affective Plot: Research on Reading Literature," Inkshed, 9, No. 3 (1991), 5-9.

"Klein Government Destroying Alberta's Universities," Edmonton Journal, December 5th 1993, p. A9. Reprinted with revisions as "Three Steps to Destroying Alberta's Universities," CAUT Bulletin, May 1994.

CONFERENCE PAPERS

"A Repertory Grid Study of Response to Poetry," 5th International Conference of Personal Construct Psychology, Cambridge, U.K., August 1985.

"Anticipating the Self: Towards a Personal Construct Model of Emotion," 6th International Conference of Personal Construct Psychology, Memphis, TN, August 1987.

"Rethinking Learning Methods," Computers and Teaching in the Humanities, Southampton, U.K., December 1988.

"Towards Independent Learning in English," Seminar on Humanities Computing, The Open University, May 1989.

"Changing the Self: The Affective Plot in Literary Narratives," Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Story Telling (British Psychological Society Conference), Dumfries, Scotland, May 1989.

"Developing a Knowledge Base for Readers' Responses to Literature," Canadian Semiotic Society (Learned Societies Meeting), University of Victoria, May 1990.

"Coleridge on Emotion: Experience into Theory," Coleridge Summer Conference 1990, Cannington, Somerset, UK, July 1990.

Kuiken, D., & Miall, D. S., "Correspondences Between Dream Formation and Literary Understanding," Annual Conference of the Association for the Study of Dreams, Charlottesville, Virginia, June 1991.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "The Influence of Defamiliarization on Literary Response," The Winter Text Conference, Jackson, Wyoming, January 1992.

"Empowering the reader: Literary response and classroom learning," Society for the Empirical Study of Literature (IGEL), Memphis, Tennessee, May 1992.

Kuiken, D., & Miall, D. S., "Variations in response to a short story: A phenomenological study," Society for the Empirical Study of Literature (IGEL), Memphis, Tennessee, May 1992.

"Emotion in Literary Response," Day Conference on Emotion and Literature, Research Institute for History and Culture, University of Utrecht, July 6 1992.

"Hypertext and the Question of Reading," The 4th Conference of the International Society for the Study of European Ideas (ISSEI), Graz, Austria, August 22-27 1994.

Kuiken, D., & Miall, D. S., "Extending the poetics of dreams: Dream impact and reader response," The Conference of the Association for the Study of Dreams, Leiden, The Netherlands, July 1994.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Feeling and the Three Phases of Literary Response," The 4th International Conference on the Empirical Study of Literature, Budapest, Hungary, August 24-27 1994.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Aspects of Literary Response: A New Questionnaire," The 4th International Conference on the Empirical Study of Literature, Budapest, August 24-27 1994.

Kuiken, D., & Miall, D. S., "Procedures in Think Aloud Studies: Contributions to the Phenomenology of Literary Response," The 4th International Conference on the Empirical Study of Literature, Budapest, August 24-27 1994.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Shifting Perspectives: Readers' Feelings and Literary Response," Conference on Narrative Perspective: Cognition and Emotion, The Netherlands, June 1-3 1995.

"The Self in History: Wordsworth, Tarkovsky, and Autobiography," the Third Conference of the North American Association for the Study of Romanticism, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, July 20-23 1995.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D. "Relativism revisited: Traces of actual reading 'performances'." Session 681: Real Readers; Convention of the Modern Languages Association, Chicago, December 27-30, 1995.

The XIV Congress of the International Association of Empirical Aesthetics, Prague, August 1-4, 1996:

        Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Forms of Reading: Recovering the Self-as-Reader."

        Kuiken, D., Miall, D. S., Busink, R., & Cey, R., "Aesthetic Attitude and Insight-oriented Reading: the 'Realization' of Personal Meanings in Literary Texts."

The 5th Biennial Conference of the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature (IGEL), Nakoda, Alberta, August 21-25, 1996:

        Kuiken, D., & Miall, D. S., "Empiricism Without Positivism: Methods in Studies of Literary Response."

        Kuiken, D., Miall, D. S., & Meunier, R., "Loss, Depression, and Feeling Realization during Reading."

        Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Personality Differences, Reading Patterns, and the Literary Response Questionnaire."

"Romantic Construction of the Reader: Implications for Reading and Teaching," the International Association of Literary Semantics (IALS), Freiburg, September 1-3. (Session on "Literary Education: Focus on Form and Instruction Methods")

"The Resistance of Reading: Romantic Hypertexts and Pedagogy," the 5th Conference of The North American Society for the Study of Romanticism (NASSR), McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, 23-26 October 1997. (Special Session: "Teaching Otherwise: Romanticism and Digital Pedagogy.")

D. S. Miall, T. Frцhlich, P. Henningsen. "In the convergence zone: A neuronal model of literary response." Forum of European Neuroscience, Berlin, June 27-July 1 1998.

T. Frцhlich, R. Haux, P. Henningsen, D.S. Miall, P. Roebruck. "Attention based neuronal processing: A probabilistic model of non-hierarchical neuronal convergence." Forum of European Neuroscience, Berlin, June 27-July 1 1998.

T. Frцhlich, R. Haux, P. Henningsen, D. S. Miall, and P. Roebruck. "Prevention of childhood atopic disease: Health care targeting somatic, psychic, and social levels." XXIIth International Congress of Pediatrics, Amsterdam, August 1998.

VIth Biennial IGEL Conference, Utrecht, August 26-29, 1998, six papers:

        Alamir A. Corrêa, David S. Miall, and Don Kuiken, Response to environments and to literary texts: The role of national identity.

        Don Kuiken, David S. Miall, Michael Bears, and Laurie Smith, Defamiliarization in dreaming and reading: Eye movements and attentional disengagement.

        David S. Miall and Don Kuiken, What is literariness? Empirical traces of reading.

        Shelley Sikora, Don Kuiken, and David S. Miall, Enactment versus interpretation: A phenomenological study of readers' responses to Coleridge's 'The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.'

        Teresa M. Dobson and David S. Miall, Orienting the reader? A study of literary hypertexts.

        David S. Miall, Hypertextual reading. What's the difference?

"Beyond the picturesque: An affective poetics of Coleridge's landscapes." American Conference on Romanticism. University of California at Santa Barbara, October 16-18 1998. (Special Panel on Romanticism and Cognitive Neuroscience)

"The Poetics of Babytalk II. "Micro"-Poetics." Conference of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, June 2-6 1999.

"Reading Nature: Coleridge's Kinaesthetic Landscapes." The 7th Annual Conference of the North American Society for the Study of Romanticism (NASSR), August 12-15, 1999, Halifax, Nova Scotia. (Special session: Romanticism and the New Psychology)

"The first poetry? The stylistics of babytalk." Poetics and Linguistics Association, June 29-July 2 2000, Goldsmith's College, London.

"Now you see it! Electronic postmodernism." SENAPULLI: Seminбrio Nacional dos Professores Universitбrios de Literaturas de Lнngua Inglesa, July 16-21, 2000, Juiz de Fora, Brazil.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D., "Becoming what we behold: A feeling for literature." The 7th Biennial Conference of the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature (IGEL), July 31-August 4, 2000, Toronto.

Kuiken, D., & Miall, D. S. "Reading expressively through 'tears of light'." The 7th Biennial Conference of the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature (IGEL), July 31-August 4, 2000, Toronto.

"The first poetry? The stylistics of babytalk." The 7th Biennial Conference of the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature (IGEL), July 31-August 4, 2000, Toronto.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D. "A Feeling for Fiction: Becoming What We Behold." The Work of Fiction: Cognitive Perspectives, June 4-7 2001, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel. (paper online at: http://www.ualberta.ca/~dmiall/reading/Feelfict.htm)

Kuiken, D., & Miall, D. S. "Phenomenological Approaches to the Temporality of Reading Experience." The 8th Biennial Conference of the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature (IGEL), Pécs, Hungary, August 21-24, 2002.

Kuiken, D., Miall, D. S., Gregus, M., Phillips, L., & Sikora, S. "Metaphors of Personal Identification: Forms of Self-implication in Literary Reading." The 8th Biennial Conference of the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature (IGEL), Pécs, Hungary, August 21-24, 2002.

Miall, D., Kuiken, D., & Gifford, J. "Reasons for Reading and Studying Literature." The 8th Biennial Conference of the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature (IGEL), Pécs, Hungary, August 21-24, 2002.

"The Third Factor: Modelling the Reader." Second Annual Humanities Computing Graduate Conference: New Perspectives in Humanities Computing. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, December 5-6, 2002.

Gao Wei, Miall, D. S., & Don Kuiken, D. "The Receptivity of Canadian Readers to Chinese Literature." Culture and the State: Past, Present, Future. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, May 2-5 2003.

Miall, D. S. "The Landscape of Feeling: Re-reading Romantic Travel." Keynote presentation for conference: Literature and Emotions: Text, Ideology, and Conflict, The Netherlands Graduate School for Literary Studies, University of Utrecht, June 22-26 2003.

Kuiken, D., & Miall, D. S. "Withdrawing to Engage: How Literary Reading Penetrates Consciousness." Workshop: How Literature Enters Life, University of Utrecht, June 26-28 2003.

Miall, D., Kuiken, D., & Gifford, J. "Why do students choose to study literature?" European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction, EARLI, University of Padua, Italy, Aug 26-30, 2003.

Miall, D. S. "Reading Hypertext: Theoretical Ambitions and Empirical Studies." Invited paper, The State of the Art in Humanities Computing, University of Munich, December 12, 2003.

Б.6. Уривок із англомовного електронного тексту, прихованого

під гіперпосиланням Hypertextual reading: What's the difference?

на персональній веб-сторінці Девіда Майелла

Hypertextual reading: What's the difference?

David S. Miall

Department of English, University of Alberta

Abstract

An increasing chorus of voices in the last few years has been telling us that the book is dead, and that hypertext and hypermedia will bring about fundamental changes in reading and writing. Also in prospect are radical changes in learning: the introduction of the computer will force teachers to rethink their practices, while students will be empowered to learn in new ways. Although this perspective is now common, it may also be misleading. The issue should perhaps be framed differently: given what we know about reading and writing, and the psychological processes that support them, how effectively does hypertext electronically embody those processes? To what extent does hypertext change these processes, or promote some component process to a more prominent role? Put this way, the issue moves away from the implications of facilitating a technological development that has come to seem inevitable, however desirable that development may turn out to be. Instead the question is how well do we currently understand those underlying processes. Until we have some convincing answers to this question the impact of hypertext on reading or writing must be unpredictable: we cannot be sure whether we are supercharging the process or throwing a monkey-wrench into it. In this discussion I will focus on three specific aspects of the problem: (1) an assessment of the commitment to the topographical nature of the medium emphasised by most hypertext proponents (Bolter, Moulthrop, etc.); (2) the rhetoric of empowerment in the light of current hypertext design, particularly hypertext fiction; and (3) discontinuities between hypertext models of reading and much previous understanding of reading.

Б.7. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням Biography на персональній веб-сторінці Марвіна Мінського

EDUCATION

The Fieldston School, New York.
Bronx High School of Science, New York
Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts
United States Navy, 1944-45
B.A. Mathematics Harvard University 1946-50
Ph.D. Mathematics Princeton University 1951-54
Junior Fellow, Harvard Society of Fellows, 1954-1957

PROFESSIONAL

Toshiba Professor of Media Arts and Sciences, M.I.T, 1990-present
Donner Professor of Science, M.I.T., 1974-1989
Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, M.I.T., 1974
Co-Director, M.I.T. Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, 1959-1974
Assistant Professor of Mathematics, M.I.T., 1958
Founder, M.I.T. Artificial Intelligence Project, 1959
Staff Member, M.I.T. Lincoln Laboratory, 1957-1958

HONORS

Turing Award, Association for Computing Machinery, 1970
Doubleday Lecturer, Smithsonian Institution, 1978
Messenger Lecturer, Cornell University, 1979
Dr. Honoris Causa, Free University of Brussels, 1986
Dr. Honoris Causa, Pine Manor College, 1987
Killian Award, MIT, 1989
Japan Prize Laureate, 1990
Research Excellence Award, IJCAI 1991
Joseph Priestly Award, 1995
Rank Prize, Royal Society of Medicine, 1995
R.W. Wood Prize, Optical Soc. of America, 2001
Benjamin Franklin Medal, Franklin Institute, 2001

SOCIETIES

President, American Association for Artificial Intelligence, 1981-82
Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellow, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
Fellow, Harvard Society of Fellows
Board of Advisors, National Dance Institute
Board of Advisors, Planetary Society
Board of Governors, National Space Society
Awards Committee, American Academy of Achievement
Member, U.S. National Academy of Engineering
Member, U.S. National Academy of Sciences
Member, Argentine National Academy of Science
Member, League for Programming Freedom

CORPORATE AFFILIATIONS

Director, Information International, Inc., 1961-1984
Founder, LOGO Computer Systems, Inc.
Founder, Thinking Machines, Inc.
Fellow, Walt Disney Research and Development

GOVERNMENT

Various panels and committees on Mathematics, AI, and Space Exploration.
Chairman, NBS visiting committee on Applied Mathematics

PATENTS and INVENTIONS

1951 SNARC: First Neural Network Simulator
1955 Confocal Scanning Microscope: U.S.Patent 3013467
1963 First head-mounted graphical display
1963 Concept of Binary-Tree Robotic Manipulator
1967 Serpentine Hydraulic Robot Arm (Boston Museum of Science)
1970 The "Muse" Musical Variations Synthesizer (with E. Fredkin)
1972 First LOGO "turtle" device (with S. Papert)

BOOKS

"Neural Nets and the Brain Model Problem," Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1954. The first publication of theories and theorems about learning in neural networks, secondary reinforcement, circulating dynamic storage and synaptic modifications.

Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines, Prentice-Hall, 1967. A standard text in Computer Science. Out of print now, but soon to reappear.

Semantic Information Processing, MIT Press, 1968. This collection had a strong influence on modern computational linguistics.

Perceptrons, (with Seymour A. Papert), MIT Press, 1969 (Enlarged edition, 1988). Developed the modern theory of computational geometry and established fundamental limitations of loop-free connectionist learning machines. Contrary to popular belief, the result in this book are not restricted to networks with 1, 2, or 3 layers; in fact virtually every theorem is easily seen to apply to feedforward networks of any depth, with appropriate reductions in the still-exponential growth rates! Neural net theorists should read it again, this time attending to the central scaling issues.

Artificial Intelligence, with Seymour Papert, Univ. of Oregon Press, 1972. Out of print, and we'd love to buy a copy!

Robotics, Doubleday, 1986. Edited collection of essays about robotics, with Introduction and Postscript by Minsky.

The Society of Mind, Simon and Schuster, 1987. The first comprehensive description of the Society of Mind theory of intellectual structure and development. See also The Society of Mind (CD-ROM version), Voyager, 1996.

The Turing Option, with Harry Harrison, Warner Books, New York, 1992. Science fiction thriller about the construction of a superintelligent robot in the year 2023.

Б.8. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням Curriculum Vitae на персональній веб-сторінці Джеффрі Ліча

I.  GENERAL

Date of Birth:                            16  January, 1936

Age:                                          67

Present post:                            Professor Emeritus, English Linguistics, Lancaster University

Degrees:                            B.A. (1959), M.A. (1963), PhD (1968), all at the

University of London

                                          Fil.Dr. (Honorary Doctorate) Univ. of Lund (1987)

                                          Hon. D. Litt, University of Wolverhampton (2002)

                                          D. Litt, Lancaster University (2002)

Fellowships, etc.:              Harkness Fellowship (held at MIT) (1964-5)

                                          Fellow of the British Academy (from 1987)

                                          Member of Academia Europaea (from 1989)

                                          Fellow, University College London (from 1989)

                                          Member, Norske Videnskaps-Akademi (from 1993)

                                          Hon. Professor, Beijing Foreign Studies University (from1994)

Previous posts:                            Assistant Lecturer in English, University College London (1962-5)

                                          Lecturer in English, University College London (1965-9)

                                          Reader in English Language, Lancaster University (1969-74)

                                          Professor of Linguistics and Modern English Language, Lancaster University (1974-96)

                                          Research Professor in English Linguistics (1997-2001)

                                          Emeritus Professor in English Linguistics (2002-      )                                         

Other positions at Lancaster:

                                          Chairman, Institute for English Language Education (1985-90)

                                          Joint Director, Unit for Computer Research on the English Language [UCREL] (1984-95)

                                          Chair, University Centre for Computer Corpus Research on Language [UCREL] (1995-2001)

Main academic interests: English grammar, semantics, stylistics, pragmatics, corpus linguistics and corpus-based natural language processing by computer.

Widening access

International students

Maps and directions

Б.9. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням Curriculum Vitae of Robert de Beaugrande на персональній веб-сторінці Роберта де Богранда

Dr. Robert de Beaugrande

Vita and Publications

March 2003

Vita

A. Citizenship: Austria

B. Current position and address

Prof. Dr. Robert de Beaugrande

Departamento de Letras Estrangeiras Modernas

Centro de Ciências Humanas, Letras e Artes

Universidade Federal da Paraíba - Campus I  

58059-900 João Pessoa

Paraíba, BRAZIL

e-mail beaugrande2000@yahoo.co.uk

website www.beaugrande.com

also accessible at http://beaugrande.bizland.com

C. Degrees

MA in German and English Language and Literature, Free University of Berlin, 1971

PhD in Comparative Literature and Linguistics, University of California, Irvine, 1976

D. Language proficiency

speaking and reading: English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese

reading: Latin, Old English, Middle English, Old High German, Middle High German

E. Languages of publication

English, German, Dutch, Afrikaans, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Hungarian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Slovene, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Japanese, Korean, Arabic

F. Areas of specialisation, research, and publication

philosophy of science

transdisciplinarity

information technology

semiotics

general linguistics

applied linguistics

text linguistics

sociolinguistics

psycholinguistics

discourse analysis

comparative literature

literary theory

poetics

aesthetics

literacy

language planning

language pedagogy

language and literature programme development

rhetoric and composition

English as a Foreign Language

English as a Second Language

English for Academic Purposes

reading and reader response

writing across the curriculum

scientific communication

technical communication

business communication

G. Previous posts

Assistant Professor of English, University of Florida 1978-80

Associate Professor of English, University of Florida 1980-83

Professor of English, University of Florida, 1983-91

Professor of English, University of Vienna, 1991-97              

Professor of English, University of Botswana at Gaborone 1997-99

Full Professor of English, United Arab Emirates University, 1999-2001

H. Guest professorships

Universität Bielefeld, West Germany, 1979

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1984

Honorary Research Fellow, University College London, 1985

Summer Institute of Semiotics, Bloomington, 1985

Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil, 1985 and 1993

Crump Institute for Medical Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 1986

National University of Singapore 1988-89

University of the Philippines, Diliman, 1989

Universität Leipzig, 1990

Universiti Sains Malaysia, 1990

University of Alexandria, Egypt, 1993

University of Abuja, Nigeria, 1993

University of Cape Town, South Africa, 1999

Universitat Pompeu Fabri, Barcelona, 1999

I. Invited lectures, seminars, and workshops

Institutes and Academies of Science:

Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, la Habana

Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, Berlin

Centre d’Études de Psychologie Cognitive, Orsay

Centre National de Recherches Scientifiques, Paris

Centro Comasco di Semiotica, Varenna

Československá Akademie Vĕd, Praha

Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur

European University Institute, Firenze

Information Sciences Institute, University of Southern California

Institute of Education, Singapore

Institut für deutsche Sprache, Mannheim

Institut für Deutsch als Fremdsprache, München

Internationales Institut für Terminologieforschung, Wien

Latvijas Zinatny Akademija, Riga

Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, Budapest

Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, Pécs

Maritime Academy of Alexandria

Porter Institute of Semiotics, Tel Aviv

Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig

Slovenská Akadémia Vied, Bratislava

Stanford Research Institute International, Menlo Park

Southwest Research Laboratories, Los Alamitos

Organizations (* = plenary speaker):

American Association of Applied Linguistics

Association American Educational Research Association

Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée

Association for Literary Semantics*

Cognitive Science Society

Conference on College Composition and Communication

Conference on Language and Public Policy*

Conference on Language for Special Purposes*

Conference on Reading for Special Purposes*

International Reading Association

International Semiotic Society

International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature*

International Systemic Functional Congress*

International Terminological Congress*

Language for Special Purposes*

Latvian Terminological Congress*

Linguistic Association of South Africa*

Moravian and Silesian Teachers of English*

National Reading Association

NATO Conference on Discourse*

Pacific Reading Association

Reunião Ciencia e Qualidade da Vida

Persatuan Penterjemahan Malaysia*

Sangguniang Pangwika sa Edukasyon ng Pilipinas*

Sydney Linguistic Circle

Semiotic Society of America

South African Association of Applied Linguistics*

Southeast Asian Regional Conference on Language Planning*

Southeast Conference on Linguistics*

TESOL Convention

Ukrainian Terminological Congress*

UNESCO Conference on Interdisciplinary Science

Wiener Sprachgesellschaft*

World Transdisciplinarity Congress 

Universities:

Argentina

Universidad de Buenos Aires

Australia

La Trobe University

Macquarie University

University of Melbourne

Monash University, Clayton

Murdoch University

University of Western Australia, Perth

Austria

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I. Member of editorial board (past and present)

Discourse Processes

Discourse Studies

Discurso y Sociedad

Empirical Studies of the Arts

English for Special Purposes

Functions of Language

POETICS

Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada

Text

H. Grant recipient

John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship, 1984-85

Ohio State University Publication Awards Program, 1977

Office of Instructional Resources Small Grants, 1982 and 1983

American Council of Learned Societies Travel Grant, 1985

International Research Exchange Travel Grant, 1987

Council for the International Exchange of Scholars Grant (Fulbright-Hays), National University of Singapore, 1988-89

United States Information Service Visiting Academic Specialist Grant, Yarmouk University, Jordan, 1992

Б.10. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням

Text Grammar Revisited на персональній веб-сторінці Роберта де Богранда

Text Grammar Revisited

Robert de Beaugrande

1. Three steps in the career of the “sentence”

When I first made contact with text linguistics as a student in the mid-1970s, the field was in the process of gradually finding its identity. A convention had recently arisen of referring to previous work in linguistics as sentence linguistics. As far as I can discover, this term was nowhere adopted by the research in question, and still does not figure in language programmes. Whereas “text linguistics” currently appears in 1,161 websites on the Internet (10/2/2001), “sentence linguistics” appears in only 2, and one of them is a paper of my own (Beaugrande 1993)… .

Yet the consensus on the “central place” of the sentence was merely apparent, being deconstructed by the marked diversity among linguistic approaches. A careful examination of how the term was actually used in the discourses of linguists will detect a corresponding diversity of senses and meanings (Beaugrande 1999). A field which does not define its “primary datum” in a consistent and consensual way might seem to be a paradox. But the inconsistency has had the strategic value of enabling the field to shift its views of linguistic issues along a sequence of incisive steps while invoking the “sentence” as its guarantor of continuity and solidity.

For the purposes of the present paper, I shall highlight just three of these steps. In the first step, notwithstanding its already quoted status as “the ideal type of syntagm”, Saussure (1916/1966, 106), did not accept the “widely held theory making sentences the concrete units of language”, because the “totality of sentences that could be uttered” would reveal “immense diversity”; and “in no way do they resemble each other” (1916/1966, 106). So he proposed to consign it “to speaking [parole], not to language [langue]” (1916/1966, 106). But in fact he created a duality by consigning it to both sides: “in the syntagm there is no clear-cut boundary between the language fact, which is a sign of collective usage, and the fact that belongs to speaking and depends on individual freedom; in a great number of instances it is hard to classify a combination of units because both forces have combined in producing it, and they have combined in indeterminate proportions” (1916/1966, 124f). I hold this duality to be substantially correct for all language data, including the sentence; but Saussure failed to recognise it as powerful impediment for his famous dichotomy between langue and parole to be sustained for language data. So he inaugurated the tradition of double-tracking in linguists who announce dichotomies they find reassuring in theory yet recalcitrant in practice, and so proceed to circumvent them. He himself vowed to “deal only with linguistics of language”, whilst “using material belonging to speaking to illustrate a point” (1916/1966, 20).

Our second step was in some ways the dialectical antithesis of the first. Reflecting his own training in fieldwork, Bloomfield counselled “the linguist” to “observe all speech forms impartially” (1933, 22). This counsel led him to define the sentence as an observable entity, namely: “a linguistic form” that is “spoken alone” and “not included in any larger (complex) linguistic form” (1933, 170, 179).1 Yet this definition would substantially increase any “immense diversity” by admitting numerous grammatical patterns that are not sentences by other definitions… .

Our third step might resemble a dialectical antithesis to the other two. Far from seeing only “immense diversity” in the “totality of sentences that could be uttered” (Saussure), Chomsky (1957, 48, 54) proposed a “grammar” to “reconstruct formal relations among utterances in terms” of “structure” and to “generate exactly the grammatical sentences”. Indeed, his “transformational grammar” was founded squarely on the notion that the sentences of a language are not diverse but uniform — so much so that “rules” can be formulated to convert (derive, transform) any one sentence structure into any other.

Б.11. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням

What is a text? на персональній веб-сторінці Роберта де Богранда

A text (with a small ‘t’) is a communicative event that contributes to a discourse, which is a set or sequence of mutually relevant texts. Whatever is found to be intended and accepted as a text IS a text. The text is defined by its natural occurrence in a context of communication and not by its forms or features, which can show tremendous variation.

A Text (with a capital ‘t’) is the authentic recorded product of such a communicative event, usually in writing, but also in such media as pictures, graphics, soundtrack, videos and so on. This second definition includes what is commonly called a ‘text’, namely a piece of writing in hard-copy, such as a friendly letter, an essay, or a book. But modern media and technology, especially the computer, have sharpened public awareness of other modes of Text, and other means of access, as when you 'download a file' from the Internet. A music video, for instance, is a Text; the act of viewing and listening to it is a text.

Б.12. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням

The place of formal theory in empirical research

на персональній веб-сторінці Вільяма Лабова

The place of formal theory in empirical research

My own conception of theory is somewhat different from many of my colleagues, who equate the re-organizing activity of theory with the construction of models intended to represent language as a whole. This is certainly a valuable and useful activity, and as I will argue, an essential one. But it is not the only way in which we can go about increasing the generality and depth of our understanding of language. An alternative and complementary approach to theory construction is an inferential and inductive procedure, which builds in a cumulative manner on what we already know, generalizing from the known to the unknown. At various stages in the development of a field, the inferential approach to general principles may be more useful than the deductive approach; but this is a matter of judgment. Since there are far more languages and ways of using language than can ever be described, a fruitful investigation will begin by asking which observations and which experiments will eventually lead to a more fruitful and more rapid accumulation of knowledge. This planning will be guided by a detailed mapping of what is already known and not yet known, in order to define the frontiers of knowledge that are to be advanced. But it also needs guidance from an overall theory of what languages are like.

Over the past several decades, the study of linguistic change and variation, more or less embedded in quantitative sociolinguistics, has been guided by the inferential approach to theory. The results have shown, I believe, a cumulative character. The presupposition of this conference is that the relations between variation studies and linguistic theory have not been healthy: theoreticians have ignored the data developed by those studying variation in the use of language, and students of variation have failed to keep abreast of linguistic theory. The major topic of my presentation here, the study of (t, d) deletion, shows many grounds for this dissatisfaction. The brief sketch of the history of this miniature field will show that the original formulation of (t, d) deletion has been criticized because it was a modification of the SPE format (Chomsky and Halle 1968), based on a conception of rule that is now outmoded in linguistic theory. A more recent finding, the exponential model of Guy, was formulated in terms of autosegmental theory and the lexical phonology of the late 1980's. Because these models are no longer current, students of the 1990's are attempting to reformulate the findings of variation studies in terms of optimality theory. Those whose primary interest is the description of languages, as well as some of those concerned with uncovering general principles of the language faculty, have asked whether such repeated reformulations do represent a cumulative increase in our knowledge.

I believe that mistrust of formal linguistic theory on the basis of its instability is misguided. Formal theorists cannot be committed to the preservation of continuity with past descriptions of language, nor accept the responsibility of maintaining downward compatibility with preceding theories. Formal linguistic theory is not a cumulative activity in this sense. The chief value of formal models, I believe, is to draw the attention of empirical investigators to undetermined relationships and unanswered questions that they have overlooked. The discussion to follow will show many examples of such constructive intervention. Once such questions have been raised, and clearly formulated, the chief purpose of the model has been achieved. It may then fruitfully be dissolved and replaced by other models, which will reveal new aspects to be investigated. The cumulative character of the enterprise lies not in the models, but in the gradual development of our knowledge through further inference and investigation. Formal linguistic theory is thus an indexical rather than a substantive activity. Insofar as it draws attention to unperceived relationships, it is an essential component of any research that would contribute to general linguistics.

Б.13. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням

Some Observations on the Foundation of Linguistics

на персональній веб-сторінці Вільяма Лабова

We can observe a profound division in the foundations of our discipline (linguistics), that corresponds quite closely to the traditional philosophical opposition of idealism and materialism. The idealist approach is exemplified by generative grammar, as originated and developed by Chomsky (1957, 1965, 1981), and various other treatments that would account for the same data by parallel methods: generalized phrase structure grammar, lexical-functional grammar, and others. The materialist position is exemplified by the practice current in phonetics, historical linguistics, and dialectology. The principles of this position have been developed most explicitly in sociolinguistics, and in particular in the quantitative study of linguistic variation, which will be the basis of the discussion to follow.

Б.14. Уривок із наукового писемного тексту монографії Дебори Шиффрін “Approaches to Discourse” та уривок із електронного тексту “Semiotic aspects of social transformation and learning” наукового блоку

персональної веб-сторінки Нормана Феарклафа

Б.15. Уривок із електронного тексту “Critical Discourse Analysis and Citizenship”, розташованого на персональній веб-сторінці Нормана Феарклафа

Critical Discourse Analysis and Citizenship

Norman Fairclough, Simon Pardoe and Bronislaw Szerszynski

Researching Citizenship

How does one empirically research the phenomenon of ‘citizenship’? And how does one do so when notions of ‘citizen’ and ‘citizenship’ are highly contested in both theory and practice?

The many recent contributions from political theory, sociology and other disciplines to the reconceptualization of citizenship tend to draw only indirectly on empirical research, and are predominantly normative in character. Against this background, it is useful to attend more closely to the practices of citizenship on the ground.

The PARADYS project is therefore concerned with empirically researching and theorizing ‘citizenship…as an ongoing communicative achievement’ (Bora et al 2001b:3). The concept of citizenship is “operated in terms of the dynamics of social positioning” (Bora & Hausendorf 2000:1). The research focus is on “the ways in which participants themselves act and are treated by others as citizens” (Bora & Hausendorf 2001a:4).

One way of reading this emphasis on citizenship as a communicative achievement is that it is an attempt to get us away from preconceptions about what citizenship is, and to force us to look at how it’s done – at the range of ways in which people position themselves and others as citizens in participatory events.

However, the contrast between preconception and practice, between the theoretical and the empirical, is not simple. To illustrate this, let us take, as an example, the first participatory event that the present authors recorded as part of the PARADYS research – a local public meeting called by a Parish Council, held in a village hall near a GM crop site, with three speakers from key organizations involved in the procedures and the wider public debate.[1] In many ways this was clearly a public sphere event – an occasion where individuals formally gather together to debate and/or hear about issues of public concern. Yet during the meeting there was no evidence that participants were themselves working explicitly with the categories of 'citizen' or 'citizenship' (cf. Padmos/Mazeland/teMolder this volume with data extracts from public meetings in which participants explicitly do declare themselves 'as citizens'). They certainly did not use these terms, though they did use other terms one might think of as related, such as ‘consultation’. But they were nevertheless interacting in ways which analysts might see as the ongoing communicative achievement of citizenship. So where is this analytical category of ‘citizenship’ coming from?  Whose category is it?

In the next section we explore this question, and draw out some implications for the way that participatory events should be studied in order to understand the ways in which citizenship is enacted within them. We begin with the problem, as addressed by Bourdieu, of constructing the ‘object of research’ (in this case, ‘citizenship’ within and around the procedures for the Field Scale Trials of GM crops). We argue that constructing citizenship as an object of research entails (i) recognising ontologically the dialectic between pre-constructions of citizenship and performance of citizenship within everyday practice, and (ii) recognising epistemologically the dialectic between theoretical insights on citizenship and empirical research practice, or ‘method’.

We then present an analytical framework for this empirical research of citizenship as a communicative achievement, based upon Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). The intention is to bridge the linguistic and sociological dimensions of the project, to incorporate the dialectical relationship between theory and method. It is a framework which can accommodate different repertoires of linguistic-analytic tools for the micro-analysis.

Б.16. Уривок із електронного тексту “Critical Discourse Analysis and Citizenship”, розташованого на персональній веб-сторінці Нормана Феарклафа

Four inter-related strands for the analysis

We are suggesting that CDA provides a useful basis from which we can develop a framework specifically for this research. From our experience of attending the participatory events, our experience of talking to people in the interviews, and our initial analysis of the texts and transcripts from these, we suggest there are four practical and fundamental strands for our empirical analysis of citizenship as a communicative achievement. They are represented in the diagram below. They are intended, in combination, to offer a coherent practical and theoretical framework for the analysis.

      Genre struggles

within and around the

meetings / interactions

Subject     . 
Positioning     .

  Discourses around                                       Discourses of

Public Participation                                         Citizenship 

Four inter-related strands which provide a framework for a linguistic and sociolinguistic analysis of the ways in which social relations and identities of citizenship are constituted, reproduced and modified through subject positioning within and around public interactions.

As the arrows indicate, these four analytic strands are clearly inter-related and complementary. Moreover, “subject positioning” is located in the centre of the diagram in order to keep in mind the intended focus of this empirical analysis of citizenship, and therefore the common focus of these strands. Within the chains of texts and events in our data, we are interested in the particular identities and social relations which participants establish and negotiate – for themselves as participants, for other participants, for the relevant institutions, and for the wider public beyond. We are interested in identifying and exploring those identities and relations that may be relevant to citizenship. In the next section we explain each strand and its contribution to this primary focus.

This framework is intended to provide the kind of rationale and theoretical understanding necessary to guide and underpin the micro-level linguistic analysis. By this we mean that the four strands below are intended to give direction and focus to the empirical analysis. More specifically they are intended to inform the processes of selecting from the range of potential data, from the range of potential avenues for analysis, and from the vast array of linguistic-analytic tools.

Б.17. Електронний текст “Semiotic aspects of social transformation and learning”, що розташовується на персональній веб-сторінці

Нормана Феарклафа

Semiotic aspects of social transformation and learning

Norman Fairclough              

This paper has the character of a theoretical reflection on semiotic aspects of social transformation and learning in response to the empirical research presented in preceding papers. Its particular focus will be one gap in my work in Critical Discourse Analysis which a number of contributors have pointed out: it has not addressed questions of learning. So my objective will be to incorporate a view of learning into the version of Critical Discourse Analysis which has been developing in my more recent work (Chouliaraki & Fairclough 1999, Fairclough 2000a, Fairclough 2001, Fairclough forthcoming, Fairclough, Jessop and Sayer forthcoming, Chiapello & Fairclough 2002).  I shall approach the question of learning indirectly, in terms of the more general and in a sense more fundamental question of the ‘performativity’ of texts or, in critical realist terms (Fairclough, Jessop & Sayer forthcoming), their causal effects on non-semiotic elements of the material, social and mental worlds,  and the conditions of possibility for the performativity of texts. I shall use the term ‘semiosis’ rather than ‘discourse’ to refer in a general way to language and other semiotic modes such as visual image, and the term ‘text’  for semiotic elements of social events, be they written, spoken, or combine different semiotic modes as in the case of television texts.

Semiotic aspects of social structures, social practices, and social events

Let me begin with the question of social ontology. I shall assume that both (abstract) social structures and (concrete) social events are real parts of the social world which have to be analysed separately as well as in terms of their relation to each other – a position of ‘analytical dualism’ (Archer 1995, 2000, Fairclough, Jessop & Sayer forthcoming).

Social structures are very abstract entities. One can think of a social structure (such as an economic structure, a social class or kinship system, or a language) as defining a potential, a set of possibilities. However, the relationship between what is structurally possible and what actually happens, between structures and events, is a very complex one.  Events are not in any simple or direct way the effects of abstract social structures. Their relationship is mediated – there are intermediate organisational entities between structures and events. Let us call these ‘social practices’. Examples would be practices of teaching and practices of management in educational institutions. Social practices can be thought of as ways of controlling the selection of certain structural possibilities and the exclusion of others, and the retention of these selections over time, in particular areas of social life. Social practices are networked together in particular and shifting ways – for instance, there has recently been a shift in the way in which practices of teaching and research are networked together with practices of management in institutions of higher education, a ‘managerialisation’ (or more generally ‘marketisation’, Fairclough 1993) of higher education.

Semiosis is an element of the social at all levels. Schematically:

                            Social structures: languages

                            Social practices: orders of discourse

                            Social events: texts

Languages can be regarded as amongst the abstract social structures I have just been referring to. A language defines a certain potential, certain possibilities, and excludes others – certain ways of combining linguistic elements are possible, others are not (eg ‘the book’ is possible as a phrase in English, ‘book the’ is not). But texts as elements of social events are not simply the effects of the potentials defined by languages. We need to recognise intermediate organisational entities of a specifically linguistic sort, the linguistic elements of networks of social practices. I shall call these ‘orders of discourse’ (see Fairclough 1992, Chouliaraki & Fairclough 1999). An order of discourse is a network of social practices in its language aspect. The elements of orders of discourse are not things like nouns and sentences (elements of linguistic structures), but discourses, genres and styles (I shall differentiate them shortly). These elements, and particular combinations or articulations of these elements, select certain possibilities defined by languages and exclude others – they control linguistic variability for particular areas of social life. So orders of discourse can be seen as the social organisation and control of linguistic variation.

There is a further point to make: as we move from abstract structures towards concrete events, it becomes increasingly difficult to separate language from other social elements. In the terminology of Althusser, language becomes increasingly ‘overdetermined’ by other social elements. So at the level of abstract structures, we can talk more or less exclusively about language – more or less, because ‘functional’ theories of language see even the grammars of languages as socially shaped (Halliday 1978). The way I have defined orders of discourse makes it clear that at this intermediate level we are dealing with a much greater ‘overdetermination’ of language by other social elements – orders of discourse are the social organisation and control of linguistic variation, and their elements (discourses, genres, styles) are correspondingly not purely linguistic categories but categories which cut across the division between language and ‘non-language’, semiosis and the non-semiotic. When we come to texts as elements of social events, the ‘overdetermination’ of language by other social elements becomes massive: texts are not just effects of linguistic structures and orders of discourse, they are also effects of other social structures, and of social practices in all their aspects, so that it becomes very difficult to separate out the factors shaping texts.

Semiosis as an element of social practices: genres, discourses and styles

Social events and, at a more abstract level, social practices can be seen as articulations of different types of social element. They articulate semiosis (hence language) together with other non-semiotic social elements. We might see any social practice as an articulation of the following elements:

                                          Action and interaction

                                          Social relations

                                          Persons (with beliefs, attitudes, histories etc)

                                          The Material World

                                          Semiosis

So for instance classroom teaching articulates together particular ways of using language (on the part of both teachers and learners) with particular forms of action and interaction, the social relations and persons of the classroom, the structuring and use of the classroom as a physical space.

We can say that semiosis figures in three main ways in social practices. It figures as:

                                          Genres (ways of acting)

                                          Discourses( ways of representing)

                                          Styles (ways of being)

One way of acting and interacting is through speaking or writing, so semiosis figures first as ‘part of the action’. We can distinguish different genres as different ways of (inter)acting discoursally – interviewing is a genre, for example. Secondly, semiosis figures in the representations which are always a part of social practices – representations of the material world, of other social practices, reflexive self-representations of the practice in question. Representation is clearly a semiotic matter, and we can distinguish different discourses, which may represent the same area of the world from different perspectives or positions. An example of a discourse in the latter sense would be the political discourse of New Labour, as opposed to the political discourse ‘old’ Labour, or the political discourse of ‘Thatcherism’ (Fairclough 2000b).  Thirdly and finally, semiosis figures alongside bodily behaviour in constituting particular ways of being, particular social or personal identities. I shall call the semiotic aspect of this a style. An example would be the style of a particular type of manager – the way a particular type of manager uses language as a resource for self-identifying.  Genres, discourses and styles are realised in features of textual meaning and form, and we can distinguish three main aspects of textual meanings and their formal realisations (similar to the ‘macro-functions’ distinguished by Halliday 1994) corresponding to them: actional, representational, and identificational meanings. These meanings are always simultaneously in play in texts and parts of texts.

Social effects of texts and on texts

I have begun above to discuss the causal effects of social structures and social practices on texts. We can see texts as shaped by two sets of causal powers, and by the tension between them: on the one hand social structures and social practices, and on the other hand the agency of people involved in the events they are a part of. Texts are the situated interactional accomplishments of social agents who whose agency is however enabled and constrained by social structures and social practices. Neither a broadly interactional perspective nor a broadly structural perspective (the latter now including social practices) on texts can be dispensed with, but neither is sufficient without the other.

We also have to recognise both that texts are involved in processes of meaning-making, and that texts have causal effects (ie they bring about changes) which are mediated by meaning-making. Most immediately, texts can bring about changes in our knowledge, our beliefs, our attitudes, values, experience, and so forth. We learn from our involvement with and in texts, and texturing (the process of making texts as a facet of social action and interaction) is integral to learning. But texts also have causal effects of a less immediate sort – one might for instance argue that prolonged experience of advertising and other commercial texts contributes to shaping people’s identities as ‘consumers’, or their gender identities.  Texts can also have a range of other social, political and material effects – texts can start wars, for instance, or contribute to changes in economic processes and structures, or in the shape of cities. In sum, texts have causal effects upon, and contribute to changes in, persons (beliefs, attitudes etc), actions, social relations, and the material world.

But we need to be clear what sort of causality this is. It is not a simple mechanical causality – we cannot for instance claim that particular features of texts automatically bring about particular changes in people’s knowledge or behaviour or particular social or political or material effects. Nor is causality the same as regularity: there may be no regular cause-effect pattern associated with a particular type of text or particular features of texts, but that does not mean that there are no causal effects[2]. Texts can have causal effects without them necessarily being regular effects, because many other factors in the context determine whether particular texts as parts of particular events actually have such effects, and can lead to a particular text having a variety of effects.

Contemporary social science has been widely influenced by ‘social constructivism’ – the claim that the (social) world is socially constructed. Many theories of social constructivism emphasise the role of texts (language, discourse, semiosis) in the construction of the social world. These theories tend to be idealist rather than realist. A realist would argue that although aspects of the social world such as social institutions are ultimately socially constructed, once constructed they are realities which affect and limit the textual (or ‘discursive’) construction of the social. We need to distinguish ‘construction’ from ‘construal’, which social constructivists often do not: we may textually construe (represent, imagine etc) the social world in particular ways, but whether our representations or construals have the effect of changing its construction depends upon various contextual factors – including the way social reality already is, who is construing it, and so forth. So we can accept a moderate version of the claim that the social world is textually constructed, but not an extreme version (Sayer 2000).

One of the causal effects of texts which has been of major concern for critical discourse analysis is ideological effects – the effects of texts in inculcating and sustaining ideologies. I see ideologies as primarily representations of aspects of the world which can be shown to contribute to establishing and maintaining relations of power, domination and exploitation. ‘Primarily’, because such representations can be so to speak enacted in ways of interacting socially, and inculcated in ways of being, in people’s identities (see below). Let us take an example: the pervasive claim that in the new ‘global’ economy, countries must be highly competitive to survive (something like this is presupposed in this extract from a speech by Tony Blair to the Confederation of British Industry: ‘Competition on quality can’t be done by Government alone. The whole nation must put its shoulder to the wheel’). One could see such claims (and the neo-liberal discourse they are associated with)  as enacted in for instance new more ‘business-like’ ways of administering organisations like universities, and inculcated in new managerial styles. We can only arrive at a judgement about whether such claims are ideological by looking at the causal effects they have in particular areas of social life, for instance factories or universities, asking whether they contribute to sustaining power relations (eg by making employees more amenable to the demands of managers).

Dialectical relations

The relations between elements of a social event or a social practice, including the relation between semiosis and non-semiotic elements, are dialectical relations. We can say that elements are different, cannot be reduced to another, require separate sorts of analysis, yet are not discrete. In Harvey’s terms (1996), each element ‘internalizes’ other elements. What I said above about ‘overdetermination’ can be seen in terms of the internalization of non-semiotic elements in semiotic elements (texts, orders of discourse). And what I said about the causal effects of texts can be seen in terms of the internalization of semiotic elements in non-semiotic elements.

We can see claims about the socially constructive effects of semiosis, including the ‘moderate’ social constructivism I advocated above, as presupposing the dialectical internalization of semiosis in the non-semiotic – presupposing for instance that discourses can be materialized (internalized within the material world) in the design of urban spaces. We can also see

claims about how people learn in the course of communicative interaction (such as the claims in the papers of this volume) as presupposing the dialectical internalization of semiosis in the non-semiotic. What people learn in and through text and talk, in and through the process of texturing as we might put it (making text and talk within making meaning), is not merely (new) ways of texturing, but also new ways of acting, relating, being, and intervening in the material world which are not purely semiotic in character. A theory of individual or organizational learning needs to address the questions of retention, of the capacity to recontextualize what is learnt, to enact it, inculcate it, and materialize it.

Dialectical relations obtain intra-semiotically as well as between semiotic and non-semiotic elements. For instance, processes of organizational learning often begin (and especially so in what has been conceived of as the contemporary ‘information society’ or the ‘knowledge society’) with the recontextualization within organizations of discourses from outside – an obvious example these days is the discourse of ‘new public management’ (Salskov-Iversen et al 2000). But such discourses may (the modality is important in view of the moderate version of social constructivism I have advocated above) be enacted as new ways of acting and interacting, incuIcated as new ways of being, as well as materialized in for instance new buildings and plant. Enactment is both semiotic and non-semiotic: the discourse of new public management may be enacted as new management procedures, which semiotically include new genres, for instance new ways of conducting meetings within an organization. Inculcation is also both semiotic and non-semiotic: the discourse of new public management may be inculcated in new managers, new types of ‘leader’, which is partly a matter of new styles (hence partly semiotic), but also partly a matter of new forms of embodiment. Bodily dispositions are themselves open to semioticization (as indeed are buildings), but that does not mean they have a purely semiotic character – it is, precisely, a facet of the dialectical internalization of the semiotic in the non-semiotic. What this example (and the case study by Salskov-Iversen et al) also points to is the dialectic between colonization and appropriation in processes of social transformation and learning: recontextualizing the new discourse is both opening an organization (and its individual members) up to a process of colonization (and to ideological effects), and, in so far as the new discourse is transformed in locally specific ways by being worked into a distinctive relation with other (existing) discourses, a process of appropriation.

Let us come back to the modality of the claim that discourses may be enacted, inculcated, and materialized.  There are social conditions of possibility for social transformation and learning which are in part semiotic conditions of possibility (Fairclough, Jessop & Sayer forthcoming). In the example of ‘new public management’ discourse, for instance, the semiotic conditions of possibility for the recontextualization and dialectical enactment, inculcation and materialization of the discourse within particular organizations refer to the order of discourse: the configuration of discourses, genres and styles which is ‘in place’ not only within a particular organization but in the social field within which it is located, but also relations between the orders of discourse of different fields. To cut through the complexities involved here, we can say broadly that the openness of an organization to transformations ‘led’ by a new discourse, and the openness of the organization and its members to learning, depend upon on the extent to which there is a discourse or configuration of discourses in place within the organization and the field for which the dialectic of enactment, inculcation and materialization is fully ‘carried through’, and the capacity for autonomy with respect to other fields (not, of course, a purely semiotic matter).

Emergence and Learning

The critical discourse analysis of texts includes both ‘interdiscursive analysis’ of the genres, discourses and styles drawn upon and how different genres, discourses and styles are articulated together (‘textured’ together), and analysis of how such ‘mixes’ of genres, discourses and styles are realized in the meanings and forms of texts (which entails linguistic analysis, and other forms of semiotic analysis such as analysis of visual images or ‘body language’). The papers by Rogers and Lewis & Ketter for instance point to the significance in talk of interdiscursivity, discourse hybridity, for learning. In the critical realist frame I have been drawing upon, one can see this as the basis for semiotic ‘emergence’, the making of new meanings. But as Lewis & Ketter indicate, the possibilities for emergence depend upon the relative dialogicality of text and talk, the orientation to difference. We can schematically differentiate five orientations to difference, with the proviso that this is not a typology of texts, individual texts and talk may combine them in various ways (Fairclough forthcoming):

a)       an openness to, acceptance of, recognition of difference; an exploration of difference, as in ‘dialogue’ in the richest sense of the term

b)       an accentuation of difference, conflict, polemic, a struggle over meaning, norms,  power

c)       an attempt to resolve or overcome difference

d)       a bracketing of difference, a focus on commonality, solidarity

e)       consensus, a normalisation and acceptance of differences of power which brackets or suppresses differences of meaning and over norms

Scenario (e) in particular is inimical to emergence. Dialogicality and orientation to difference depend upon the sort of broadly structural conditions I pointed to in the previous section – conditions to do with social practices, fields, and relations between fields, which have a partly semiotic character (in terms of orders of discourse). But as I suggested earlier, the ‘causal powers’ which shape texts are the powers of agency as well as of structure – whatever the state of the field and the relations between fields, we can ask about both  latitudes for agency, and their differential uptake by different agents, including agents involved in the sort of critical educational research reflected in the papers of this volume.

A relatively high degree of dialogicality and orientation to difference can be seen as favouring the emergence of meaning through interdiscursive hybridity, though to talk about learning there needs to be some evidence of continuity and development (provided for instance by longitudinal aspects of the research reported in this book) and retention (which one might see as requiring evidence of transfer, recontextualization, from one context to others).  Learning can be seen as a form of social transformation in itself, but as a necessary but not sufficient condition of social transformation on a broader scale. Learning through text and talk can be interpreted as part of what I referred to above as the semiotic conditions for social transformation.

Critical research, learning and social transformation

In assessing the possibilities for and limitations of critical educational research motivated by emancipatory (eg anti-racist) agendas for learning and social transformation, one needs to consider both factors of a broadly structural character and factors to do with agency. With respect to the former, educational research can be seen as part of a network of social practices which constitutes an apparatus of governance (in part semiotically constituted as an order of discourse – Fairclough forthcoming), a network which includes practices of classroom teaching, educational management, educational research, and (national, state, local etc) government and policy making (Bernstein 1990). The nature and workings of the apparatus are internally as well as externally contested – critical educational researchers are for instance often seeking to create more open and equal relations between academic research and classroom teaching. One issue they must consider is what I referred to earlier as the social conditions of possibility for social transformation and learning, which include latitudes for agency within educational research itself. These issues can be partly addressed from a semiotic perspective in terms of latitudes for agents in social research to develop, recontextualize, and seek to enact and inculcate new discourses. But there are also considerations (touched upon in this volume) to do with forms of agency in recontextualizing contexts, eg questions of the dialogicality of interactions between educational researchers and teachers. Once again, neither a structural nor an interactional perspective can be dispensed, but neither is sufficient without the other.

References

Archer M 1995 Realist Social Theory; the Morphogenetic Approach Cambridge University Press

Archer M 2000 Being Human: the Problem of Agency Cambridge University Press

Bernstein B 1990 The Structuring of Pedagogic Discourse Routledge

Chiapello E & Fairclough N 2002 Understanding the new management ideology. A transdisciplinary contribution from Critical Discourse Analysis and the New Sociology of Capitalism. Discourse and Society 13.2

Chouliaraki L & Fairclough N 1999 Discourse in Late Modernity  Edinburgh University Press

Fairclough N 1992 Discourse and Social Change Polity Press

Fairclough N 1993 Critical discourse analysis and the marketisation of public discourse: the universities Discourse & Society 4 133-168

Fairclough N 2000a Discourse, social theory and social research: the case of welfare reform Journal of Sociolinguistics 4.2

Fairclough N 2000b New Labour, New Language? Routledge

Fairclough N 2001 The dialectics of discourse Textus 14 231-42

Fairclough N Forthcoming Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research Routledge

Fairclough N, R Jessop, A Sayer (forthcoming) A critical realist interpretation of the effectivity of the production of meaning, in J Roberts (ed) Critical Realism, Deconstruction and Discourse Routledge

Halliday M 1978 Language as Social Semiotic Edward Arnold

Halliday M 1994 Introduction to Functional Grammar Edward Arnold

Harvey D 1996 Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference Blackwell

Salskov-Iversen D, Hansen H & Bislev S 2000 Governmentality, globalization and local practice: transformations of a hegemonic discourse Alternatives 25 183-222

Sayer A 2000 Realism and the Social Sciences Sage

Б.18. Електронний текст, прихований під гіперпосиланням Biography

на персональній веб-сторінці Ноама Хомського

Biography

Noam Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His undergraduate and graduate years were spent at the University of Pennsylvania where he received his PhD in linguistics in 1955. During the years 1951 to 1955, Chomsky was a Junior Fellow of the Harvard University Society of Fellows. While a Junior Fellow he completed his doctoral dissertation entitled "Transformational Analysis". The major theoretical viewpoints of the dissertation appeared in the monograph "Syntactic Structure", which was published in 1957. This formed part of a more extensive work "The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory", circulated in mimeograph in 1955 and published in 1975.

Chomsky joined the staff of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1955 and in 1961 was appointed full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics (now the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy). From 1966 to 1976 he held the Ferrari P. Ward Professorship of Modern Languages and Linguistics. In 1976 he was appointed Institute Professor.

During the years 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was in residence at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, NJ. In the spring of 1969 he delivered the John Locke Lectures at Oxford; in January 1970 he delivered the Bertrand Russell Memorial Lecture at Cambridge University; in 1972, the Nehru Memorial Lecture in New Delhi, and in 1977, the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden, among many others.

Professor Chomsky has received honorary degrees from University of London, University of Chicago, Loyola University of Chicago, Swarthmore College, Delhi University, Bard College, University of Massachusetts, University of Pennsylvania, Georgetown University, Amherst College, Cambridge University, University of Buenos Aires, McGill University, Universitat Rovira I Virgili, Tarragona, Columbia University, University of Connecticut, Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, University of Western Ontario, University of Toronto, Harvard University, University of Calcutta, and Universidad Nacional De Colombia. He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Science. In addition, he is a member of other professional and learned societies in the United States and abroad, and is a recipient of the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association, the Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the Helmholtz Medal, the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award, the Ben Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, and others.

Chomsky has written and lectured widely on linguistics, philosophy, intellectual history, contemporary issues, international affairs and U.S. foreign policy. His works include: Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; Cartesian Linguistics; Sound Pattern of English (with Morris Halle); Language and Mind; American Power and the New Mandarins; At War with Asia; For Reasons of State; Peace in the Middle East?; Reflections on Language; The Political Economy of Human Rights, Vol. I and II (with E.S. Herman); Rules and Representations; Lectures on Government and Binding; Towards a New Cold War; Radical Priorities; Fateful Triangle; Knowledge of Language; Turning the Tide; Pirates and Emperors; On Power and Ideology; Language and Problems of Knowledge; The Culture of Terrorism; Manufacturing Consent (with E.S. Herman); Necessary Illusions; Deterring Democracy; Year 501; Rethinking Camelot: JFK, the Vietnam War and US Political Culture; Letters from Lexington; World Orders, Old and New; The Minimalist Program; Powers and Prospects; The Common Good; Profit Over People; The New Military Humanism; New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind; Rogue States; A New Generation Draws the Line; 9-11; and Understanding Power.

Б.19. Уривок із електронного тексту, прихованого під гіперпосиланням Biography на персональній веб-сторінці Пітера Остіна

Peter Austin did his studies at the Australian National University, completing a BA with first class Honours in Asian Studies (Japanese and Linguistics) in 1974, and a PhD in 1978 on the Diyari language spoken in the far north of South Australia. After a year teaching at the University of Western Australia, he spent two years as a Harkness Fellow at UCLA and MIT. Following this he taught at Harvard University for a year before returning to Australia in 1981 to set up the Department (then Division) of Linguistics at La Trobe University. In 1989 he was instrumental in establishing Japanese language teaching at La Trobe. From January 1996 he has been Foundation Professor of Linguistics at the University of Melbourne.

Peter has held visiting positions at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen (November 2001-January 2002), University of California, Santa Barbara (June-August 2001), University of Frankfurt (November 1999 - February 2000), Institute for the Study of the Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies (September 1995-August 1996), Department of English, University of Hong Kong (November 1994-June 1995), Faculty of Letters, Tsukuba University (January-February 1994), Linguistics Department, Stanford University (August-December 1993), Centre for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University (November 1987-January 1988, November 1989-January 1990, February 1992, January 1993), and System Sciences Laboratory, Xerox Palo Alto Research Centre (November 1989 - January 1990).

Б.20. Електронний текст, прихований під гіперпосиланням Brief Biography

на персональній веб-сторінці Дугласа Уокера

Douglas C. Walker. BA, MA (Alberta, 1968), MA, CPhil, PhD (University of California at San Diego, 1971). Taught at University of California at Irvine and University of Ottawa, 1971-89. At Ottawa, Chair, Department of Linguistics, 1975-81; Vice-Dean, Faculty of Arts, 1981-89. Appointed to University of Calgary in 1989 as Head (from 1989-1998) of Department of French, Italian and Spanish, with joint appointment in Linguistics. Currently teaches Phonologie francaise, La langue francaise au Canada, Histoire de la langue francaise, Le francais dans le monde, Introduction to the Romance Languages, Historical Linguistics, Phonetics and Sociolinguistics. Research interests in French and Romance linguistics, particularly Old French, Modern French, Canadian French phonology and morphology. Author of An Introduction to Old French Morphophonology, Dictionnaire inverse de l'ancien francais, The Pronunciation of Canadian French, French Sound Structure some 40 articles and 50 reviews. Review Editor of Canadian Journal of Linguistics 1986-92. President, Canadian Linguistic Association, 1994-96. Fellow of the Humanities Institute, University of California (1972) and Camargo Foundation (Cassis, France; 1979, 1985, 1995). Grants from ACLS (1972), CFH (1980, 1981), SSHRCC (1973, 1974, 1978, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1989), CFI (2000). Member of Canadian Linguistic Association, Association for French Language Studies, Linguistic Society of America, and The Philological Society.

Б.21. Уривок із електронного тексту “Language as a dynamical system”,

розташованого  на персональній веб-сторінці Джеффрі Елмена

Language as a dynamical system

Introduction

Despite considerable diversity among theories about how humans process language, there are a number of fundamental assumptions which are shared by most such theories. This consensus extends to the very basic question about what counts as a cognitive process. So although many cognitive scientists are fond of referring to the brain as a 'mental organ' (e.g., Chomsky, 1975) – implying a similarity to other organs such as the liver or kidneys – it is also assumed that the brain is an organ with special properties which set it apart. Brains 'carry out computation' (it is argued); they ' entertain propositions'; and they 'support representations'. Brains may be organs, but they are very different than the other organs found in the body.

Obviously, there are substantial differences between brains and kidneys, just as there are between kidneys and hearts and the skin. It would be silly to minimize these differences. On the other hand, a cautionary note is also in order. The domains over which the various organs operate are quite different, but their common biological substrate is quite similar. The brain is indeed quite remarkable, and does some things which are very similar to human-made symbol processors; but there are also profound differences between the brain and digital symbol processors, and attempts to ignore these on grounds of simplification or abstraction run the risk of fundamentally misunderstanding the nature of neural computation (Churchland & Sejnowski, 1992). In a larger sense, I raise the more general warning that (as Ed Hutchins has suggested) ''cognition may not be what we think it is''. Among other things, I will suggest in this chapter that language (and cognition in general) may be more usefully understood as the behavior of a dynamical system. I believe this is a view which both acknowledges the similarity of the brain to other bodily organs and respects the evolutionary history of the nervous system, while also acknowledging the very remarkable properties possessed by the brain.

In the view I will outline, representations are not abstract symbols but rather regions of state space. Rules are not operations on symbols but rather embedded in the dynamics of the system, a dynamics which permits movement from certain regions to others while making other transitions difficult. Let me emphasize from the beginning that I am not arguing that language behavior is not rule-governed. Instead, I suggest that the nature of the rules may be different than what we have conceived them to be.

The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. In order to make clear how the dynamical approach (instantiated concretely here as a connectionist network) differs from the standard approach, I begin by summarizing some of the central characteristics of the traditional approach to language processing. Then I shall describe a connectionist model which embodies different operating principles from the classical approach to symbolic computation. The results of several simulations using that architecture are presented and discussed. Finally, I will discuss some of the results which may be yielded by this perspective.

Б.22. Уривок із електронного тексту, розташованого

на персональній веб-сторінці Дженніфер Арнолд

The hypothesis that I investigated with the corpus analysis was that both subjects and the focus of clefts signal that there is a high likelihood that their referents will be mentioned again in the subsequent discourse. That is, both constructions may be pointers to the topic of the following utterance. In a "normal", nonclefted utterance, the best bet for the topic of the following utterance is the topic of the current one, since speakers usually talk about the same thing for extended periods of time. On the other hand, a clefted utterance is a marked construction that the speaker may employ to indicate that the topic will shift to the referent of the focus. This hypothesis is consistent with Sgall et al.'s proposal (1986:58) that the focus of one utterance is related to the topic of the next. If this is the case, I expected that after nonclefted utterances, speakers would refer to the referent of the subject more often than to other elements in the utterance, but that after clefted utterances, speakers would refer more often to the focus of the cleft.

To investigate this hypothesis I conducted a corpus analysis, using the Aligned-Hansard Corpus from 1986. The Aligned-Hansard corpus is a collection of transcripts from the Canadian Parliament, so the discourse it represents is natural and communicative, albeit formal. The discourse is spoken, although one might imagine that the speakers may have had prepared notes at their disposal. However, the transcripts are doubtlessly edited, as they contain no disfluencies or partial sentences, and some segments may be translated from French.

3.3.1. Method

I analyzed the 1986 Aligned-Hansard corpus by extracting two types of utterances: wh-clefts (also sometimes called "pseudo-clefts") and nonclefted sentences. To find wh-clefts I searched for "What" (with a capital W) that was not followed by a question-mark. I only considered those utterances that clefted the object or object-of-PP, because I was interested in the comparison between the embedded subject and the focused NP. I also discarded cases where there was no following utterance, or where the following utterance belonged to another speaker. This method yielded 146 total examples of wh-clefts. The comparison set of data was a random sample of non-clefted sentences, which I assembled by opening each file from 1986, scrolling down three pages, and taking the utterance where my cursor landed. In this set I excluded questions, sentences with dummy subjects or nonreferential subjects (like the generic "one"), and cases where there was no following sentence by the same speaker. This method resulted in 263 examples.

Б.23. Уривок із електронного тексту, розташованого

на персональній веб-сторінці Дженніфер Арнолд

3.3.2. Results

The Reference Continuation patterns for Clefts and Nonclefts are presented in Figure 4, illustrating that the most frequent type of continuation for nonclefted utterances is with reference to the subject-referent, but for clefted utterances it is with reference to the focus-referent. The percentages of each bar do not add up to 100%, because they were calculated out of all references in each category. However, here I am only showing references to the subject or object in nonclefted utterances or the embedded subject or focus in clefted utterances.

This figure shows that wh-clefted and nonclefted utterances are associated with quite different patterns in discourse. For nonclefted utterances, the subject-referent (usually the first-mentioned referent) has a much higher probability of being mentioned in the following clause than any other referent, whereas for clefted utterances, it is the focus-referent (usually not the first-mentioned referent) that has the highest probability of being mentioned in the following clause. The corpus analysis thus parallels the experiment in showing a similarity between the categories subject and focus.

Б.24. Уривок із електронного тексту, розташованого

на персональній веб-сторінці Дженніфер Арнолд

The results for this experiment show that readers preferred stimuli that used pronouns for both topical referents (subject-referents) and focused referents (the focus of "the one" constructions), but they preferred stimuli that used names for references to other entities. These results corroborated the findings of Almor (1996) and Gordon et al. (1993). If these preferences for reference form are assumed to reflect the mental representations of the referents, they suggest that the referents of both subjects and the focus of clefts are more activated than other arguments. Thus, despite the traditional opposition between topic and focus, the two categories may be more similar to each other than previously thought.

At the same time, the results of this study raise the question of why it should be that both constructions increase the accessibility of their referents. It is this question that the following corpus analysis aimed to answer.

Б.25. Уривок із електронного тексту, розташованого

на персональній веб-сторінці Дженніфер Арнолд

The percentage of pronominal references in each category of recency, with and without quotes, are presented in Table 8 and Figure 2. These data show that when a quote increases the linear distance between an anaphor and the last time it was mentioned, the percentage of pronominalization falls. The comparison between "no quote" and "plus quote(s)" was significant for "one clause", "two clauses", and "three clauses" (2(1)'s > 4, p's < .05), although not for the categories "four clauses" and "five clauses" (2(1)'s < 1, p's > 1).

Table 8. The effect of quotes on reference form (English)

Б.26. Уривок із електронного тексту, розташованого

на персональній веб-сторінці Дженніфер Арнолд

The data in this chapter provide the first pieces of evidence for my hypothesis. For three factors, and in three different languages, I found striking parallels. Each factor was associated with two things: a) an increased use of less-specified forms (Reference Form), and b) an increased probability of subsequent reference to the same referents (Reference Continuation). This pattern of results is depicted in Figure 9, following the schema from chapter 1.

Б.27. Уривок із електронного тексту, розташованого

на персональній веб-сторінці Дженніфер Арнолд

The tendency for comprehenders to focus on one referent over another is also a function of how they interpret the relationship between a given clause and the previous one. This interpretation must be represented at some level in the listener's discourse model. For simplicity, I will treat it here as a local representation. Figure 1 depicts how a listener might represent the various possible relationships between two particular clauses. At first, several types of relation are activated. As the listener receives additional information over time, one relation will become fully activated, and the others will lose activation. Activation is represented here as lines emanating from a particular representation. The number and size of lines represents the degree of activation.

Б.28. Електронний текст, прихований під гіперпосиланням Proto-properties and Argument Encoding: a Correspondence Theory of Argument Selection

на персональній веб-сторінці Фаррела Екермена

Proto-properties and Grammatical Encoding: A Correspondence Theory of Argument Selection

Farrell Ackerman and John Moore

This book develops a theory of semantically induced argument encodings based on the proto-property argument selection proposal of David Dowty. Such a theory is designed to cover much of the empirical terrain of mapping/linking theories in identifying the principles of correspondence between the lexical semantics of predicates and the grammatical function and morphological case encodings of their arguments. In this theory the authors distinguish two basic strategies for the organization of lexical information: a syntagmatic argument selection principle, which, following Dowty's work, compares the proto-properties of co-arguments of a single predicate, and a paradigmatic argument selection principle, which compares the proto-properties of a single argument across related predicates. They demonstrate how these two strategies yield widespread cross-linguistic patterns of regularity with respect to the correspondence between lexical information and argument encoding. In particular, Ackerman and Moore consider psych predicates, causatives, object encoding in Estonian and Finnish, and experiencer constructions in Polish and Russian.

Б.29. Електронний текст, прихований під гіперпосиланням Brief Biography на персональній веб-сторінці Джорджа Пола Лендоу

George P. Landow: A Brief Biography

George P. Landow, the founder and current webmaster of The Victorian, Postcolonial, and Cyberspace and Hypertext sites, is Professor of English and Art History, Brown University. (From 1999 through 2002 he also served concurrently as Shaw Professor of English and Digital Culture at the National University of Singapore). He holds the AB and PhD from Princeton University and an MA from Brandeis University. Landow, who has written and lectured internationally on nineteenth-century literature, art, religion as well as on literary theory and educational computing, has taught at Columbia, the University of Chicago, Brasenose College, Oxford, and Brown Universities, and he has twice taught at NEH summer institutes for college teachers at Yale. He has been a Fulbright Scholar (1963-1964), twice a Guggenheim Fellow (1973, 1978), and a Fellow of the Society for the Humanities at Cornell University (1968-1969), and he has received numerous grants and awards from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts. He has been British Academy Visiting Professor at the University of Lancaster, Visiting Research Fellow in the Department of Electronics and Computer Science at the University of Southampton, Visiting Professor at the University of Zimbabwe, and Distinguished Visiting Professor, National University of Singapore (NUS). He served as the founding dean of the University Scholars Programme, NUS, 1999-2001.

Landow helped organize several international loan exhibitions including Fantastic Art and Design in Britain, 1850 to 1930 (1979), and his books include The Aesthetic and Critical Theories of John Ruskin (Princeton UP, 1971), Victorian Types, Victorian Shadows: Biblical Typology and Victorian Literature, Art, and Thought (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980), Approaches to Victorian Autobiography (Ohio UP, 1979), Images of Crisis: Literary Iconology, 1750 to the Present (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), Ruskin (Oxford UP, 1985), Elegant Jeremiahs: The Sage from Carlyle to Mailer (Cornell UP, 1986).

His books on hypertext and digital culture include Hypermedia and Literary Studies (MIT, 1991), and The Digital Word: Text-Based Computing in the Humanities (MIT, 1993) both of which he edited with Paul Delany, and Hypertext: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology (Hopkins UP, 1992), which has appeared in various European and Asian languages and as Hypertext in Hypertext (Hopkins UP, 1994), a greatly expanded electronic version with original texts by Derrida, reviews, student interventions, and works by other authors. In 1997, he published a much-expanded, completely revised version as Hypertext 2.0. He has also edited Hyper/Text/Theory. (Hopkins UP, 1994).

Landow's projects in humanities computing involve several with graduate students in English literature and art history that employed advanced word processing, electronic conferencing, and typesetting on the university mainframe to create group projects resulting in published books -- A Pre- Raphaelite Friendship (UMI, 1985) an edition of nineteenth- century unpublished letters with full scholarly apparatus produced by Dr. James H. Combs and others, and Ladies of Shalott: A Victorian Masterpiece and its Contexts (Brown U., 1986), a heavily illustrated exhibition catalogue fully designed online using IBM Script, customized macros, and typesetting programs written at Brown by Allen H. Renear and others.

A Faculty Fellow at Brown University's Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship (IRIS) from 1985 to 1992, he worked as a member of the team that developed Intermedia. He supervised, edited, and partially wrote various hypermedia documents on this system used to support English courses ranging from introductory surveys to graduate seminars. The Dickens Web, a small selection of these materials, won the 1990 EDUCOM/ NCRIPTAL award for most innovative courseware in the humanities. He published the Dickens and In Memoriam Webs in Storyspace (Eastgate Systems, 1992) and a Writing at the Edge, a collection of Brown student Storyspace webs (1995). He created and maintains three interlinked websites that together include 40,000 documents and that have won more than 50 awards, including those from NEH, the BBC, the Britannica, the French Ministry of Education, and organizations in Australia, Italy, New Zealand, Russia, and Singapore: the Victorian and the Postcolonial Literature Webs, much amplified WWW versions of materials originally created in Intermedia and Storyspace, and the Cyberspace, Hypertext, and Critical Theory Web, which is largely composed of large, elaborate student projects.

Б.30. Фотографії, приховані під гіперпосиланням Family pictures I carry in my wallet на персональній веб-сторінці Джорджа Пола Лендоу

Family pictures I carry in my wallet

Б.31. Електронний текст, прихований на персональній веб-сторінці

Девіда Майелла

The Project Method in the Literature Classroom

David S. Miall

University of Alberta

Paper published in Louann Reid and Jeff Golub, Eds., Reflective Activities: Helping Students Connect with Texts (National Council of Teachers of English, 1999), pp. 149-155.

© Copyright: National Council of Teachers of English 1999

1. Experiencing literature

If the central experience of reading literary texts, as Frye (1970, p. 75) has suggested, is incommunicable, then we should not be attempting to tell the literature students in our classrooms what a text means. We can teach about literature (about genre, rhetoric, history), but we cannot instruct students how to respond, what to feel and think as they read a text. If we attempt to do this, we are likely to derail students' own responses and implicitly deprecate their feelings and thoughts, and disenchant students with the whole enterprise of becoming literary readers (Miall, 1996). How, then, can we nurture the responses of students to texts, to empower and strengthen those reponses, and make them more authoritative? In this essay I discuss one method that I have used with success in my own literature classrooms, working with both university and high school students. It is called the project method. Now being used with increasing success in elementary classrooms (Katz and Chard, 1989), it has considerable potential for application with literary studies at a senior level.

First, we have to persuade students to take their own responses seriously. It may seem evident to them from their other classes (including previous literature classes) that learning must be teacher-directed--what are teachers paid for, after all? Teacher direction also usually appears to be more efficient. The teacher can offer coverage of the ground required, and lead a large group of students through the same topics. But while it is possible to learn under these circumstances, such learning (in contrast to essay preparation or homework done alone) tends to be erratic and fortuitous. Students may learn when a point being made by the teacher relates to something they already know or are interested in, but much will bypass them because they have no way of assimilating it to their own experience of the text.

Learning with such a teacher is rather like taking a guided coach tour through a city. You will see most of the main sights, assuming you were looking in the right direction, and you will gather a few facts about the history of each monument you pass, but your impression at the end of the day is likely to be a somewhat disconnected jumble of impressions. You learn about a city far better by walking the streets for yourself, with a map and guide in hand. You may not get to see so much, and you will take longer over the tour, but you will feel and hear the city on your own terms and at your own pace, and you will see many scenes that the coach tour ignores. So it is with learning in a literature class. The learning that students do at their own initiative unquestionably takes longer and demands more effort, and may become tiring or distressing at times (like the city explorer who wanders into a side street and becomes lost), but it ends by giving far more real understanding.

One of its features, clearly, is a redefinition of the role of the teacher. But its most important feature is that it involves a change of expectations on the part of the participating students. They must give up the security (and the irritations) of the guided tour in return for a less comfortable, and sometimes unsettling, journey on their own feet. But they will be in control of the itinerary.

2. Working in groups

Group work is at the centre of the project method that I will describe. It is the most creative part of the learning process, since it is here that the dialogue that takes place in response to literary texts is realized amidst a group of learners. To read a text requires that you supply your own knowledge of the world and the judgements you have made about it, but the text in turn may call into question the adequacy of your knowledge and impel you to shift your perspective. You may learn to judge differently, or to feel differently about some significant aspect of your life. This is the defamiliarizing work that literary texts achieve through a variety of structural and stylistic devices: through defamiliarization the text involves you in the conflicts of ideas and feelings that come from unsettling existing structures of thought (Miall, 1993).

But what world knowledge does a text require? What feelings seem to be called into question? And what new processes of thought do the defamiliarizing devices of the text call into being? Individual readers will, of course, have their own answers to these questions, and it is important to allow time (whether in class or out) for these responses to develop. Well-structured discussion in a group then enables students to compare ideas about the existing structures of thought that are drawn upon by the text, and to consider what new feelings and ideas it creates. Group discussion not only enlarges the range of ideas available, but may also enable students to enact, unprompted and extempore, some of the conflicts and arguments that the text initiates. A group discussion realizes in this way somewhat more of the potential dialogue in a text than the individual student will manage to do alone within the same time.

But working in a group of four or five students requires aims and a method. Unless students are agreed on a particular strategy, discussion within a group is likely to stray from one aspect of a text to another without arriving at any useful conclusions; discussion may wander off the text altogether. For this reason it is important, first, that a group defines the aims of its work at the beginning--a discussion to which all members of the group contribute, according to their interests in the text. Second, the group will agree on a particular method that will achieve one or more of the aims.

When meeting a new class of students at the beginning of the year, I usually spend the first few sessions giving them experience in a range of methods for use with literary texts. Some of these are general, others are specifically aimed at working with a particular genre (a poem, a drama, or a short story). Each is designed to draw upon what is distinctive about the student's own direct response to the text. Three such methods are webbing (sometimes known as mind-mapping), ideas and contrasts, and the structure diagram.

In webbing, students are provided with a pack of Post-it notes (the small size). Each student working alone puts down in a word or two (with line or page references where appropriate) the most striking or interesting features of the text, each idea on a separate note. (More advanced sessions of this activity can employ different colours for the different classes of ideas.) The students in a group then examine each other's notes, discuss and query them, and sort them into a pattern that makes sense to all of them on a table top. They can classify some of the main groups of ideas by adding a label. This, in itself, or transcribed to a poster or overhead slide, can be made the basis for a report to the whole class.

For the ideas and contrasts method a short passage is chosen from a text, either literary or critical: for example, a page from a novel, a short poem, or the first two or three paragraphs of a critical article or review. The method requires first that words or phrases that seem to carry the main ideas are underlined. Then an opposite or contrasting term is generated for each underlined word or phrase, where possible, and written in the margin. Some of the contrasts may already be expressed or implicit in the text; in other cases the contrast may be absent. In either case, the method begins to reveal much about the underlying structure of the argument employed by the writer, whether poet or critic, and serves to bring to the fore its dialogical texture.

The structure method can be used on any kind of text, whether a sonnet or a novel. The students ask the question, If you were dividing this text into several sections (say, from three to seven), where would the divisions come? Having decided on, say, six episodes, students draw these on a sheet of paper in a pattern like a simple flow chart. Six boxes are shown, where each box is accompanied by the page or line numbers of the episode it contains. In a short phrase written in each box they then describe the episodes, and add such other annotations as seem required. This method serves to raise questions about why the writer chose to focus on these episodes, and why they are put in this order. Students might annotate the boxes, for example, to raise issues created by the writer's handling of each episode, or how each relates to the next.

3. The Project

The project builds on such methods, and develops them into a more comprehensive and elaborate treatment of a given text or group of texts. It also usually requires that students work in their groups outside class time and over an extended period, perhaps two to four weeks. The group will usually consist of four students, and should be formed from students who share a similar set of interests.

A project will generally have three phases (Katz and Chard, 1989). In the first phase, represented by the kind of work described in the three methods above, students explore their existing responses to a text, and share them through a specific method that allows them to represent and organize their responses. While doing this work they will discover issues, raise questions, or notice problems that require further work. During phase two, students agree on the main questions to be pursued and assign tasks to each individual in the group. Students will then use the library, local museums, or other sources (including the teacher), to undertake research on their specific questions. For example, while one might examine the life of the author and the influences on that particular text, another might seek to retrieve information about a historical event referred to, while a third tries to locate visual resources to illustrate the text (cartoons, paintings, or the like). In phase three, students bring together their information and find an effective way to present it to the whole class. I usually encourage students new to this method of working to use a poster display for this purpose (other methods might include oral or dramatic presentations, but these generally require greater skill and experience to be effective). Organizing a poster is itself an intellectually demanding task, and often leads to further stimulating discussion.

I usually arrange for students to present their projects during the same class session. Thus, on the agreed day, a number of posters will be displayed on the walls of the classroom, and we give some time for students to circulate, to examine the work, and to note any points they wish to raise. Finally, each group is invited to introduce their poster briefly, and participate in discussion about the work they have done. After the session, the posters are displayed for several weeks in the Department library, where students can examine them at their leisure.

The project report sessions at the end of phase three are among the most invigorating and remarkable occasions I have experienced in a classroom. For students who have understood how to make the methods work, how to collaborate effectively on a project, and who embark as a result on a study that matters personally to them, the project can also be a high point of their educational experience, as many students have told me (informally, or in course evaluations). At the same time, working with projects takes careful preparation if students are to benefit from them. In particular, it requires that students learn to trust one another, to trust the teacher, and to commit themselves to the rather different kind of learning process it involves. For the teacher also it can be a challenging experience: not only do we give up a large measure of control, which may be unsettling, but the process itself is often defamiliarizing, when students raise questions or surprise us with perspectives on a text that we had never considered.

4. An example project

I conclude by reprinting a report on a project that was produced recently in one of my classes. For Amanda and her collaborators (pseudonyms have been used), this was the second project undertaken in a full-year course on British Romantic writing. Among the resources for this course is a hypertext on the Romantic period that I have been developing, available to students in a computer lab on campus. Amanda used this primarily for advice it contains about methods of presentation. She also refers to several other methods that I introduced earlier in the course.

PROJECT REPORT ON SHELLEY'S
"Julian and Maddalo"

When we first read Perkins's excerpt from "Julian and Maddalo" [in David Perkins, ed., English Romantic Writers], I was intrigued and wanted to pursue it further. Because I was interested in studying this poem for my final essay, I thought the project report would be beneficial to my essay preparation. Due to the length and nature of the poem, I think that "Julian and Maddalo" was an excellent choice for our project report.

I first consulted the hypertext for further information on Shelley and the poem but found the most guidance in the section dedicated specifically to project reports. It was here that I uncovered the suggestion for a structure diagram -- an excellent way to present a poem that was too long to include on the poster but was, at the same time, unknown to the class [Perkins's anthology omits the second half of the poem]. Because such a detailed analysis would be helpful to my overall understanding of the poem, I offered to contribute a plot diagram and summary to the poster display.

To begin my analysis, I colour-coded significant aspects of imagery, character, and tone. While doing this, I paid attention to shifts between the ideal, reality, and the imagination as we had practised at the beginning of the year. I then recorded the line numbers of these small sections and included a brief summary or significant quotations. I was then able to take these short sections and combine them under broader headings. This helped me to establish shifts in the plot, as well as changes in voice, tone, and theme throughout the poem.

The result of this analysis were six distinct sections which I labelled "introduction," "rising action," "conflict," "climactic movement," "resolution," and "epilogue." The Maniac's section was the most difficult to label since it was a huge shift in tone -- almost a digression -- yet still integral to the plot. It was climactic but too long to be considered the climax of the poem, so I settled on "climactic movement" as a label for this section.

This basic plot structure provided us with the necessary basis from which to build our poster. Andrew studied Julian and Maddalo and their conflict, while Alan considered the role of the madman, each of which corresponded to a section of my plot diagram. We also selected key passages from the other sections to portray a theme, tone, or concern of the poem.

To add visual appeal to the poster and to show the poem's setting, I collected photographs of Venice from travel brochures. Rather than cluttering the poster with arrows, we colour-coded sections which related to one another. In so doing, we created a poster that presented plot, introduced the characters, established the setting, and hopefully inspired others to read the poem.

The hypertext was also very helpful in providing suggestions for the oral report. Since the poem was new to everyone, we decided to highlight the plot and, in so doing, offer some of our own speculations. Because the Maniac's section was so intense and emotional, we chose it as a sample to present to the class. We hoped that this too would create interest and make other students want to read the entire poem.

References

Frye, N. (1970). The Stubborn Structure: Essays on Criticism and Society. London: Methuen.

Katz, L. G., & Chard, S. C. (1989). Engaging Children's Minds: The Project Approach. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Miall, D. S. (1993). Constructing the Self: Emotion and Literary Response. In D. Bogdan & S. B. Straw, Eds., Constructive Reading: Teaching Beyond Communication (63-81). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

Miall, D. S. (1996). Empowering the reader: Literary response and classroom learning. In R. J. Kreuz & S. MacNealy, Eds., Empirical Approaches to Literature and Aesthetics (pp. 463-478). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Б.32. Електронний текст, прихований на персональній веб-сторінці

Девіда Майелла

Electronic Romanticism: The CD

David S. Miall

Overview | Structure and Design | An Example Node | Student Work with the Hypertext | Conclusion

1. Overview

The epoch of computer technology in literary studies is now well established. The recent dramatic change in accessibility of the internet, or the sudden upsurge in multimedia forms of publication challenge us all to rethink our scholarship, our writing practices, and what it is possible to do in the classroom. My contribution to this challenge will appear in the form of Romanticism: the CD, an extensive collection of texts and graphics that should assist teachers of British Romantic writing from high school to graduate school, as well as providing new resources for scholarship and research.
     Thanks to Duncan Wu and Blackwell Publishers (who expect to publish the CD in 1997), a core component of the CD will be the complete text and annotations of Wu's recently published Romanticism: An Anthology. But this will provide only a part of the textual materials on the CD. Many other texts will be available, mainly in the form of substantial extracts (far longer than is usually possible in printed anthologies) from other writings of the Romantic period. These go well beyond those normally considered "literary" to include science, medicine, education, philosophy, travel, and the like. Many of the texts will be enhanced by graphics: illustrations from the books excerpted, contemporary prints and paintings, maps, diagrams, and modern photographs. I estimate that, in all, the CD will offer over two million words of text and about one thousand graphics (most in colour). These materials are presented within a hypertext environment: pointers to other texts in annotations, contextual references, background information, illustrations, and the like, are available as active links, whether from texts or from graphics. At the same time, texts are presented within a standard user interface: buttons available on screen help orient the user, and provide immediate links back to contents pages, so that the reader need never become "lost in hyperspace."
     This is the basic outline of the package. In what follows, I elaborate on its design and some of the decisions behind it; I provide an illustrated example of a "node" and its links; and I discuss how the development version of the CD was used in one of my courses at the University of Alberta.
     Additional information about the CD is available on the internet, and readers wishing to keep informed about the forthcoming publication can consult this page: British Romanticism: The CD. I will also be referring below to the home pages I maintain for teaching and research. At the moment a course on Gothic Fiction that I ran during the Autumn term, 1995, provides the most recent example of students' work, partly based on the hypertext. Next academic year I will be teaching three further courses in Romanticism, where use of the hypertext will be documented as it occurs. I also provide other information on the hypertext on a separate page: this is primarily intended to let my students know when significant updates to the hypertext are made in the computer labs where it is located. Incidentally, the development version of the hypertext will also be used on several other campuses this year in Canada and the United States, so that the package will be thoroughly "beta tested" before it is released. Any interesting information that comes out of this exercise will also be placed on the home page for the hypertext during the year.

2. Structure and Design

When I first began to teach a Romanticism course back in the early 1980s, I was, I now realize, already yearning for the kind of resource that the CD will provide. The anthology that we used then was incomplete in various ways (aren't they always?), so that I felt obliged to supplement it with a booklet of my own that I compiled and had reproduced on campus, and sold to students for a couple of pounds. This included a number of other texts, mainly extracts from philosophy and aesthetics, marginal materials from notebooks or letters, and a chronology of the period.
     I also wanted students to see the environment in which one important Romantic development occurred. Since this course took place at Cheltenham in the west of England, it was possible for us to reach the Quantock area in Somerset by coach in under two hours. The students and I would spend a couple of hours at Coleridge Cottage in Nether Stowey, then walk on the northern spur of the Quantock Hills, taking in the view of the Bristol Channel and returning via Alfoxton and Alfoxton Glen. In addition to seeing the landscape of "This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison" or "The Thorn," we would note the signs of a now lost industrial past; I would relate the tale of John Walford and Wordsworth's destroyed poem.

Quantock Hills (detail): poem locations, from a map of 1804 (57K)
     When I moved to Alberta I could no longer take students to Somerset, but I could show them slides and talk about the landscape and history of Somerset as one of the perspectives in which the work of Coleridge and Wordsworth and the production of the Lyrical Ballads might be understood. The slide show flitted past students too quickly, however, and the anthologies continued to need supplementing. Thus in 1990 I conceived the notion of a hypertext package in which I would deliver the same information, but in a form that gave students better access and greater control over how they might use it.
     I acquired a colour scanner and began converting my stock of photographs and slides to computer graphics. And I began compiling lists of the texts that I wanted to make available to students. The major problem at that stage was the primitive state of available authoring packages for hypertext. I lost much time attempting to make several serve my purpose: either they lacked the ability to cope with the high quality graphics I was producing, or they required too much low level programming to achieve effective screen design. At length I settled on HyperWriter! from Ntergaid: first the DOS version, then more recently the Windows version. While this package still has one or two minor irritations and bugs, the authoring process is relatively quick and efficient. It also has two other significant advantages: it is very robust, so that users are unlikely to make it crash or cause Windows errors (in fact I have never seen this happen so far); and once the authoring package has been bought, Ntergaid allows distribution of the run time version of the program (called HyperReader) at no additional cost.
     More recently, with the advent of HTML coding, I have considered whether an internet browser might provide an effective vehicle for distributing the hypertext (it could, for example, still be packaged on CD but accessed as a set of local files under Netscape). This offers the significant advantage that remote resources could be integrated with the hypertext. So far, however, the quality of the graphics is inferior in this environment, and it offers too little control over screen design. The JAVA extension and other improvements may soon make it possible to design a more suitable environment, but for the first edition of the CD I have decided to remain with HyperWriter! This decision, of course, does not preclude running an internet browser alongside the hypertext, offering pointers to the main resources for Romanticism on the net, such as this journal or The Voice of the Shuttle, so that students and scholars of the future will have at their fingertips both local and remote resources.
     The first basic principle underlying the hypertext is this. Recent developments in Romantic scholarship suggest that there is now a significant need for a much wider range of primary texts and other historical materials. While reprint editions of scarce texts have been produced for a number of years, and continue to appear (such as Jonathan Wordsworth's admirable Woodstock series), these tend to be too expensive for students, and in times of shrinking budgets in universities and colleges, many libraries cannot afford them either. Other scarce materials from the period, such as journals and magazines, are also generally not available in libraries except at the larger, well-endowed institutions.
     Secondly, we are now much more aware of the links between the different texts, both "canonical" and otherwise. At least some of the rich intertextuality that weaves through romantic discourse can be suggested by the hypertext environment: by pointers to influential sources on a given text (e.g., Davy's lyrical writings on chemistry that anticipate the science of Frankenstein), by links showing where one text plays off against another, such as Robinson's poem to Coleridge and "Kubla Khan," or by links that enable a specific topos to be traced through a series of texts. And, of course, connections can also be made to visual sources and influences.
     Thus, the first aim of the hypertext is to make available a generous selection of primary texts from the period. These will sit alongside the "canonical" literary texts, providing an environment for studying the literary texts in relation to the time in which they were produced. These additional primary texts, as noted earlier, will be drawn from a range of genres: medicine, science, education, etc. Each is lightly annotated, and a headnote provides full bibliographical details and a brief overview of the author and the significance of the text. A contents table provides direct access to the excerpts available. Pagination of the original edition from which a text is taken is provided throughout, so that a scholar wishing to cite from the text can refer to it independently of the CD, and other scholars who lack access to the CD can still locate such references.
     Interpretive comment, beyond that necessary in headnotes, is avoided. At this stage, I have chosen to include primary texts only. While the choice of which texts to include is obviously influenced by current critical interests, to tie the texts to the interpretive perspectives now in ascendance seemed inappropriate. Perspectives change, and, in any case, it seemed to me that students who are expected to be the primary users of the hypertext should be free to pursue or discover perspectives of their own (more on student empowerment below).

Main Screen, showing buttons for contents pages, etc. (21K)
     Several contents pages provide the main organizing framework for the various kinds of text. The Wu anthology texts are accessed though the first set of contents pages, called Texts. The complete table of contents of the anthology is offered, in which authors are placed chronologically in order of date of birth; but the first screen provides in addition an alphabetical list of authors, with each name linked to the appropriate place in the chronological section. The user can thus see immediately which texts are in the printed anthology, and call up the work of a specific author.
     The second contents page is for Gothic fiction. Given the importance of this area now in teaching and research, it seemed appropriate to make special provision for it. For each novel listed, two documents are provided, and for some novels additional documents are available. First, while the full text of the novels is not offered, a detailed plot summary of each novel is given (with page references keyed to the most common editions in print, usually Oxford Classics). For students who are studying these texts for the first time, the summaries prove effective as reminders, and enable students quickly to locate passages to which they wish to return. Second, a full collection of reviews of each novel is provided, extracted from the journals of the period (except for lengthy quotations and plot summaries). For some novels, additional documentation is provided pointing to other texts or supporting graphics (maps, landscape). For example, the section on Radcliffe offers links to some of the travel writing on which she drew, and a map showing where the main scenes of The Italian are supposed to be located. For Godwin's Caleb Williams, I provide some of the legal background to which Godwin appealed when defending the novel in the British Critic in 1795, so that students can judge the accuracy of the novel for themselves. A number of other documents relevant to studying the Gothic are also available here, such as articles from contemporary journals on the supernatural, the Inquisition, or sensibility.
     The third contents page is called Contexts. It offers a classified list of other texts and resources for Romantic studies. In addition to a Chronology, the main categories are: historical documents, social history, education, feminist writing, aesthetics, the arts, science, and medicine. Texts range from Williams's Letters on the French Revolution, to Beddoes Hygлia. The section on the arts includes an alphabetical index by artist to all the prints and paintings from the Romantic period included in the hypertext (which are otherwise scattered through a range of other documents): each entry is linked directly to its graphic, which makes it possible to review systematically all the works by a particular artist.
     The fourth main contents page is Geography. This is divided into four main sections. First, a range of maps is available, to help students locate where some of the authors lived and travelled. For example, Wordsworth's 1790 walking tour is comprehensively documented through three maps, each of which has numerous links from the locations through which Wordsworth passed: these call up a description, extracts from Wordsworth's writing (if relevant), and links to a set of pictures (modern photographs and contemporary prints and paintings). The second section offers links to "geographical chronologies": these give detailed information on the lives of several authors, with links to geographical information, allowing students to locate all the important sites in Europe for that author's works. For example, the chronology for Percy Shelley provides links to documents on his travels in the summer of 1816, such as the sailing tour on Lake Geneva and the journey to Chamonix. The third section is a collection of travel writing: Piozzi on Italy, or Gilpin on the Wye (most of the documents here are enhanced by illustrations). The fourth section consists of texts of exploration, such as Bruce on the Nile, or Bertram in South Carolina and Florida.
     Each of these contents pages is available directly from the main screen. Also available here are a biographical dictionary, offering short biographies of a number of major and minor figures of the period; and an Index to all the document and graphic files. The Index serves to bring together the texts of an author or documents about the author which otherwise occur in separate categories in the contents pages. It also provides a list, by geographical area, of both the photographs and the prints and paintings on the CD, so that the user can systematically work through a given area viewing all the landscape scenes available (both works of art and photographs). The last main contents page is that on Projects: this contains advice to students on pursuing research questions, collaborating with other students, and presenting reports.
     Finally, the hypertext (through facilities built into the program by Ntergaid) offers the ability to leave bookmarks, run predefined tours, or do a word search on all the documents in the collection: buttons are provided on the main screen for each of these functions (as well as being available from buttons on screen in every text document). The tour function, in particular, will help teachers wishing to provide their own links between documents or set specific pathways for students to follow.

3. An Example Node

The Shelleys at Chamonix (15K)
     The appearance of a typical text document is shown here, taken from the top of the document on the Shelleys at Chamonix. Functions to assist the reader are available from the top row of buttons, such as bookmarks, or searching. The buttons at the foot of the screen are for navigating up and down the document, returning to the primary contents page for that document (here, Geography), and exiting the program. These two sets of buttons are always available in text documents.
     Within the document itself other links are provided: links to text and maps are defined by green triangle symbols. At the upper right are links to one or more contents pages from which the document can be called, but unlike the contents button, which always returns to the beginning of the contents page, this link goes directly to the relevant place in the table of contents. The Shelley document links to both the Gothic and the Geography contents pages. At the top left are provided any other general links: in this instance, the Shelley document can be seen in the context of the chronology for Percy Shelley's life, and the location of Chamonix can be seen on a map illustrating the Shelleys' summer in Switzerland. (A link to another more detailed sketch map of Chamonix itself is found a little further on in the document.)
     Following the main title, printed in larger font, the source of the document is shown —here, History of a Six Weeks' Tour. Then a table of extracts is provided where each entry is linked directly to a section of the document. A short paragraph follows, orienting a reader who may be unfamiliar with the the document to the significance of the author or the document. In this example a link is provided to the relevant poem by Percy Shelley, and other links are to the names of previous visitors to Chamonix whose writings can be seen elsewhere in the hypertext. Shelley's remarkable response to Chamonix can thus be set alongside some almost equally remarkable accounts by Bourrit or Coxe.
     These elements (source, table of extracts, etc.) are normally provided at the top of every text document, where this is based on a Romantic period text. Other documents, such as chronologies, or novel summaries, follow this model where appropriate. In the remainder of the document the substance of the text is given: relevant links to other texts and graphics are embedded within it in the case of prose, or as marginal annotations in the case of poetry. From the Shelley letter the first extract is Shelley's description of the Cascade de l'Arpenaz. Here a link to a photograph of the waterfall is provided (links to pictures are shown between blue triangles), and a link to the line in "Mont Blanc" where Shelley, somewhat more obscurely, describes the waterfall. The photograph enables the student to see how the rock over which the waterfall descends, dividing it in two, might have appeared to Shelley as (in his phrase) "some colossal Egyptian deity." (In the corresponding section of "Mont Blanc," at the line "Robes some unsculptured image," the word image is repeated in the right margin, with a link to the same photograph.)

F. G. Lardy, Entrance to the Valley of Chamonix (256K)
     A further set of links is provided elsewhere in the Shelley letter, including several prints of Chamonix from the Romantic period (by artists such as Lardy, Hackert, and Bourrit): the reader can thus compare the reception of this famous Alpine landscape by both Shelley and contempory artists. The views of the glaciers, in particular, are accompanied by notes pointing out that the glaciers have receded considerably in recent times: in 1816 the Shelleys saw the glaciers descending as far as the pastures and cornfields in the valley of Chamonix —probably the furthest the glaciers had descended for a hundred years or more, according to the evidence of older residents at Chamonix or Grindelwald (whose accounts are cited in other documents). This helps the reader to understand why Shelley places such emphasis on the destructive power of the glaciers both in his letter (citing Buffon's "gloomy theory") and in "Mont Blanc."

4. Student Work with the Hypertext

The current development version of the hypertext was available to students in a recent course I ran at Alberta on Gothic Fiction that lasted for one term (13 weeks). This version offered many of the non-canonical texts mentioned above and some three hundred graphics, but the texts from Wu's anthology were not yet included. The hypertext was installed in two computer labs on campus, and we held several sessions in one of the labs during the course: this enabled students to become familiar with the hypertext, and allowed class time for them to work with it (although the assumption was that students would spend time with it outside class as they would with the library). In evaluating the course, students said they found the hypertext informative and easy to use. "A great way to integrate computer technology and English literature," as one student remarked.
     The hypertext gave students direct access to research materials of the kind they would normally not be expected to use, or even find without a detailed bibliography. But without some initial guidance and an explicit rationale for classroom work, many students might find this array of materials confusing. Thus the discussion of some basic principles for its use formed an important part of classroom work. In addition, the hypertext offers a section on projects: this includes a rationale for independent and collaborative work and several sections on specific methods for studying and reporting on research findings. My overall aim, of which the hypertext forms an important part, is to empower students to develop and pursue their own interests in the form of research projects. For this to be effective, however, students need some tools for independent and collaborative work: providing these, and allowing class time for students to experiment with them, forms a significant component of the first few weeks of the course. These tools (described and illustrated in the hypertext) include methods for analysing texts, and the use of diagrams for representing ideas and their relationships, such as a web, flowchart, or Venn diagram. Diagrams offer the advantage that other students in the class can profit more readily from the thinking of a particular group of students (diagrams were shared either immediately in class, or through being placed on a home page for the course that I maintained).
     For much of the course, students worked in small groups (usually consisting of four students). At first, students generally pursued issues within the framework that I presented during lectures, and at times I set specific tasks for students to complete in group discussion. However, for a major project that students carried out towards the end of the course they had become familiar enough with the subject and the available resources for some wide-ranging issues to be examined: these extended from nostalgia for the medieval, through various gender issues, to the role of the supernatural or religion. Here are two brief examples from the work that students did, one textual, the other diagrammatic.
     In her report on Eliza Fenwick's Secresy, one student examined the theme of education after reviewing Fenwick's relationship to feminist thinkers of the period, and after reading the extracts from books on women's education available in the hypertext, such as John Gregory and Hester Chapone. She argued that Sibella Valmont illustrates Wollstonecraft's insistence that women could benefit from education equally with men. "This is quite a change from the traditional views on female education, which held that women did not have the mental capacity to learn mathematics, sciences, and all the other subjects presented to young men." Yet, she notes that among the reviews of the novel, only the Monthly Review "mentions a tyrannical system of education." In general, she says, "the reviewers did not seem offended by Mr. Valmont's treatment of Sibella while they seemed profoundly offended by Sibella as she steps out of line."
     After their study of several novels, Wollstonecraft's Vindication, and material on the supernatural in the hypertext, two other students created a poster-sized display "On the supernatural and the position of women in gothic fiction." This consisted mainly of analytical work represented in diagrams (influenced by the hypertext section on these techniques). One web diagram, for example, was entitled "The susceptibility of female characters to supernatural ideas." This attempted to account in particular for the behaviour of Catherine Morland in Northanger Abbey. Taking "fantasy / imagination" as the main phenomenon to be explained, and placing these words centrally on the diagram, links point to the role of women's passivity, their lack of goals and objectives, the inadequacy of male explanations of events, and the role of feelings with insufficient knowledge, and the roles of intuition, and superstition. In her report on the project, one of these students remarked: "I found that using graphs encouraged me to think about my ideas in a precise manner, and to consider the ways in which they interrelated."
     During the Gothic course, issues quite often arose during class discussion, or while students worked in groups, whose analysis would have profited from access to the hypertext. In future courses, it would be helpful to have the hypertext available immediately in the classroom, rather than being obliged to take students to a computer lab. At the moment this would only be possible by running it from a mobile or portable computer, which is not a very convenient option; our classrooms are not otherwise equipped for computer-based visual displays. While this remains problematic, it is clearly essential to give students ready access to the hypertext outside class. In the longer term our intention is that students will be able to buy the CD just as they would a course book, and for a similar price. Half of the students in the Gothic Fiction course, as it turned out, had access to a computer with a compact disk drive, and would have been able to run the hypertext if had been available as a CD. No doubt this proportion of students with CD drives will increase.

5. Conclusion

In summary, Romanticism: the CD offers three main advantages, each of which is in tune with recent Romantic scholarship and developments in classroom practice. First, it undertakes to break down canonical boundaries, and to do so perhaps more radically than any printed anthology can hope to do, given the restrictions on the cost of the printed book. Second, the wide range of additional texts from the Romantic period, the rich array of graphics, and the numerous hypertext links provided between these materials, will serve to contextualize Romantic writing, and enable a much fuller sense of history and landscape to inform students' learning. Third, giving students direct access to research materials on this scale considerably increases the authority and independence of students' work, and provides opportunities for research normally only available to the advanced scholar. Perhaps it will, for this reason, be an agent for attracting a new generation of students to the study of Romantic literature.

David S. Miall
University of Alberta

Б.33. Електронний текст, прихований на персональній веб-сторінці

Девіда Майелла

The Resistance of Reading: Romantic Hypertexts and Pedagogy

David S. Miall

Introduction | The reading surface | Literary reading | Designing a literary hypertext | The Mont Blanc project

Introduction

Although the question of what it might mean to read literature is a long way from being settled, we are now confronted with a further problem: how we are to understand literary reading that occurs in a hypertext environment. The problem will, of course, be of growing importance as more literary materials become available in this form and as education turns increasingly to electronic tools. (1) What difference does it make to deliver literary texts electronically instead of in print? If we wish to facilitate a particular kind of reading amongst our students, are there specific design principles to which we should be alert in hypertext? What role can or should hypertext play in the literature classroom?
     These questions have hardly been examined yet, despite some extensive and influential studies of hypertext, from George Landow's notable experiment with Intermedia to Stuart Moulthrop's radical claims for the hypertext medium. (2) These accounts, which now constitute a certain speculative genre of theoretical writing about hypertext, have been criticized for proposing ill-informed views of the mind (3) or a misleading liberationist ethic. (4) My principal concern, however, is that the nature of literary reading is misrepresented in this writing. As a result, the learning processes appropriate to the literature classroom are left obscure. In this essay I argue for an alternative view of literary hypertext that will facilitate student learning. I take as my main example Romanticism: The CD-ROM, a hypertext for Romantic writing which I designed, and a project by three students based in part on texts and graphics from this hypertext. Before describing the hypertext, however, I will briefly offer my own critical assessment of current hypertext theory, then put forward a view of the reading process through examination of a text by Wordsworth.

The Reading Surface

The arrival of hypertext is said to realize in practical terms the claim of postmodern theories of literature. This argument is encapsulated in the subtitle of George Landow's well-known book, Hypertext, which announces the convergence of critical theory with hypertext. In the emergent cultural order thus produced, the older world of the printed book has become subject to a number of questionable interpretations. For example, according to Jay David Bolter "there is a solemnity at the center of printed literature . . . because of the immutability of the printed page". (5) Similarly, Moulthrop and Kaplan insist that the printed book "creates a bias toward hegemony and monologue". Since hypertext is said to oppose this "strategy of containment," it threatens "the orderly and autonomously meaningful text" with its "unvoiced assumptions". (6)

     Hypertext thus promises to set us free both from the hierarchical and confining textuality of the book and a publishing and teaching apparatus invested in promoting a narrow literary canon. This claim rests on several premises: an associationist model of the mind, the proposal that all text is intertextual and hence permeable, and an emphasis on the topographical properties of hypertext. That each of these claims is contestable suggests that despite the work of influential commentators such as Bolter or Landow, hypertext is still at a pre-paradigmatic stage: that is, we have no agreed theoretical framework in which to locate it, and no settled body of knowledge on either the nature of hypertext or its appropriate applications.

     Perhaps one of the strongest claims made for hypertext has been that it models the mind in ways that are impossible for print technology. In fact, the image of the mind put forward by some writers is reminiscent of the now largely discredited information processing model of early cognitive science: the possibility that "haunts" us, says Hillis Miller in a recent paper on hypertext, is "that the human brain is no more than an extraordinarily powerful, complex, and compact computer". (7) If so, another much older idea has also returned to haunt us, that of associationism. As L. M. Dryden puts it, "In its structure of branching links and nodes, hypertext simulates the mind's associative processes, thereby providing an electronic platform for constructing and recording the reader's literate thinking". (8) Even it were true that the mind functions associatively, no conceivable hypertext could be built that would accommodate individual differences in patterns of association. As a reader responds to a specific passage of literature, the feelings, ideas, memories, or literary allusions that help to shape understanding cannot be modeled in advance by links coded into the text.
     The appeal to association, however, seems derived less from interest in the mind than from a rhetoric of liberation, with hypertext as the best hope for an anti-hierarchical mode of representation. This is clear from Landow's advocacy, as he shows in a frequently cited passage:

we must abandon conceptual systems founded upon ideas of center, margin, hierarchy, and linearity and replace them with ones of multilinearity, nodes, links, and networks. Almost all parties to this paradigm shift, which marks a revolution in human thought, see electronic writing as a direct response to the strengths and weaknesses of the printed book. (Landow 2)

In this view, reading is not limited to the individual text. In the unmargining electronic environment where texts are systematically interlinked, hypertext "blurs the boundaries of individual texts" (Landow 25). Thus in hypertext "the notion of an individual, discrete work becomes undermined and untenable within this form of information technology" (Landow 56). In a hypertext environment as large and dynamic as the internet, Moulthrop explains, a given text "has no clear defense against the potential vastness of the network and its multiplicity, if not 'randomness'". (9) Moulthrop is one of several recent theorists to promote hypertext in opposition to what he calls "the monology of print". (10)
     A direct result of this approach is to erase the distinction between literary and other kinds of reading. As Landow's writing shows, the "problem" said to be addressed by hypertext is that of information: in other words, information retrieval in hypertext will be much superior to older linear modes of access (Landow 21-22). It is within this framework that, in advocating a hypertext system for reading Milton's Paradise Lost, Landow treats the engagement with the poem as the same process as seeking information about it (Landow 80-81). Landow, like most other hypertext advocates, can make this move because the question of what it means to read Milton receives no serious consideration, as another of his comments shows. One might say, Landow remarks, that hypertext linking embodies "the way one actually experiences texts in the act of reading; but if so, the act of reading has in some way gotten much closer to electronic embodiment of text and in so doing has begun to change its nature" (Landow 82).

     In its pursuit of the anti-hierarchical, several theorists claim Barthes's ground, who argued in S/Z for seeing text as a set of networks without beginning or end, a system to which "we gain access . . . by several entrances, none of which can be authoritatively declared to be the main one; the codes it mobilizes extend as far as the eye can reach, they are indeterminable". (11) Similarly, in his essay on "The Death of the Author," Barthes spoke of text as "a multi-dimensional space," and of text as a "space of writing" that is "to be ranged over, not pierced". (12) This metaphoric account becomes literalized in subsequent accounts of hypertext. The notion of text as a space of signifiers is central to Bolter's understanding, since hypertext appears (literally) on a computer screen: "In place of hierarchy, we have a writing that is not only topical: we might also call it 'topographic.' . . . Electronic writing is both a visual and verbal description. It is not the writing of a place, but rather a writing with places, spatially realized topics" (Bolter 25). This move also has consequences for understanding literary reading, not least its vulnerability to what Coleridge called "the despotism of the eye", (13) his disparagement of the type of philosophy where only that which can be represented in visual terms is considered.

     The other implication of Barthes's account is the abandonment of linearity, a feature that appeals to all hypertext theorists as self-evidently beneficial. "A hypertext has no canonical order," Bolter tells us. "Every path defines an equally convincing appropriate reading, and in that simple fact the reader's relationship to the text changes radically. A text network has no univocal sense; it is a multiplicity without the imposition of a principle of domination" (Bolter 25). This allows Landow to claim that the computer enables us to treat text as data, with all the benefit of random access that this offers: "A data base search . . . permits the active reader to enter the author's text at any point and not at the point the author chose as the beginning" (Landow 94).

     This brief review of some of the principal claims made for hypertext is intended to show that it problematizes understanding of what it means to read literature. In addition to our supposed liberation from the "seriousness" of pre-hypertext literary reading, (14) with its canon of approved texts and its monologism, hypertext is supposed to facilitate our entrance to a world of reading reshaped for the associationist mind. Apart from the interesting question whether new literary forms will be made possible by hypertext, (15) the hypertext medium seems to devalue most previous writing and our accepted modes of reading it, if we take such claims at face value. It means unmargining all existing literary texts, facilitating multilinear readings of them, and treating each topographically as a network of signifiers with no overall integrity. Clearly, reading in this context is radically different from anything we have been used to practising or teaching in the literature classroom.

     This is a major concern. At the same time, hypertext will become increasingly prominent as a means of conveying our existing literary heritage. How is it to be represented electronically? What can teachers and students do with it, and what are the appropriate forms for the discussions that make a part of any effective learning in the literature classroom? What will it mean to move the learning environment out of the classroom onto the computer or the internet?
     These questions were raised for me specifically by the task of designing a hypertext containing the primary Romantic texts (recently published as Romanticism: The CD-ROM, 1997) and making it available to students in Romanticism courses during the several years it has taken to develop. (16) With almost completely open choice of design and function provided by the authoring software I chose (HyperWriter!), the question of how students would negotiate their reading in the hypertext environment I was creating became a key issue. In describing some of the answers I reached (albeit provisionally and without systematic study), I will be putting forward a view of reading that differs significantly from the hypertext theorists I have been reviewing. At the same time, I hope that it will show something of the promise of hypertext both as a literary medium and as a vehicle for learning.

Literary reading

The passage I will focus on now is by Wordsworth. It is appropriate for several reasons: as landscape description it might be thought particularly suited to the topographic form of hypertext; as a description with several apparent gaps in it, it might also be construed as a pre-hypertext example of the jump between lexia; as an account of a pathway that was lost then found, it might seem to be an experience of the multilinear. That it is none of these things will reveal something of what it means to read a literary text, as I will try to show.

     In the summer of 1790 at the age of 20, Wordsworth set out with his friend Robert Jones on a walk across Europe, beginning with a march over France and into Switzerland. The most extensive part of the walk was a tour of various impressive sites in Switzerland which took them across the Simplon Pass into northern Italy. In Book VI of The Prelude written some fourteen years later Wordsworth described several parts of the walk in detail. The crossing of the Simplon Pass occupies lines 494-572 in the 1805 version (which I will cite in preference to the revised version published in 1850). In it, Wordsworth relates the crossing in three sections: (i) the ascent from Brig as far as a path on the farther side of the summit, where he and Jones discovered they had lost their way; (ii) a passage that celebrates the power of the imagination, but which seems disconnected from its context; and (iii) an account of the transit through the Ravine of Gondo towards Italy.

In the first section Wordsworth describes lingering over lunch at the Simplon spital, so that some other travellers (probably mule drivers) who had been their guides left before them. Continuing, they descended as far as a stream:

The only track now visible was one
Upon the further side, right opposite,
And up a lofty mountain. This we took
After a little scruple and short pause.
(504-7)

But Wordsworth appears to have been misled by the mountains ahead of him (to the south), thinking that the summit of the pass still lay ahead. His faulty schema for crossing the Alps is at length corrected when they encounter a peasant who, despite the lack of a common language, puts them right:

all the answers which the man returned
To our enquiries, in their sense and substance,
Translated by the feelings which we had,
Ended in this—that we had crossed the Alps.
(521-24)

At this point a passage of 24 lines follows on the Imagination. It begins:

Imagination! lifting up itself
Before the eye and progress of my song
Like an unfathered vapour; here that power,
In all the might of its endowments, came
Athwart me.
(525-9)

The passage is remarkable for its poetry as well as for the claims it makes, but it represents an odd digression in the narrative. Next comes the transit through the Gondo Ravine, which perhaps represents some of the most remarkable lines Wordsworth ever wrote. He captures the strange and sublime scene in images such as these:

The immeasurable height
Of woods decaying, never to be decayed,
The stationary blasts of waterfalls,
And everywhere along the hollow rent
Winds thwarting winds, bewildered and forlorn,
The torrents shooting from the clear blue sky
(556-61)

The passage culminates in a celebration of the continuities between the human mind and nature— at least, that is how it appears to me as I read it. The characteristics of the Ravine, Wordsworth says, "Were all like workings of one mind, the features / Of the same face" (568-9).

     The difficulty Wordsworth had in representing his experience of the Simplon crossing is perhaps indicated by his deferral of writing about it for some fourteen years, as well as the difficulty presented by the odd irruption of the central passage on the imagination. The power of the poetry has meant that much critical attention has been paid to it, from study of its geography (where in fact did Wordsworth and Jones lose their way?) to analysis within a psychoanalytic or a New Historicist perspective. In my reading of the passage I suggest that Wordsworth came expecting one experience; he found another. His reading of travel writers such as William Coxe's Sketches of . . . Swisserland (1779) had created the expectation of a sublime experience in the crossing of the Alps, but this expectation was given in conventional, even picturesque terms. Wordsworth failed to realize the moment when he attained the summit of the Simplon, so he missed perhaps the key experience he had come to Europe to find. His subsequent experience of the Gondo Ravine was unlike anything Coxe had led him to expect.

     But my purpose now is not to offer an interpretation of the passage, (17) but to ask what it means to read it. That the passage has been given numerous, often opposed readings, suggests its difficulty. Why is the passage resistant to being read? I will suggest that, like Wordsworth, we may come expecting one experience but find something else is offered. The passage looks as though it will adhere to a certain schema for understanding, but this is systematically thwarted. Wordsworth introduces the episode by relating the circumstances of "A deep and genuine sadness" (492). This seems to point to the negative experience of missing the crossing of the Alps, but it prepares us for neither the hymn to the imagination nor the transit through the Gondo Ravine. In these passages Wordsworth manifestly transcends his disappointment, creating triumph from defeat. These lines, in a word, present us with a transforming experience, but one that matches neither the standard topos of landscape poetry nor the guidance we might expect from an autobiographical narrator. The passage exceeds the conventions of both topographical description and of a traveller's report. Rather, Wordsworth requires us as readers to make an inductive leap, asking what kind of insight into the experience could be given by an "unfathered" imagination, or the sight of "winds thwarting winds." The answer lies in how we construe the poet's response, an answer that takes us beyond the visible terrain through which he has passed.
     Unlike the information processing called for by Landow, or the playful, ludic attitude proposed by Bolter, this passage seems to call first for the immersion of the reader in the extended, highly evocative language of the poetry: it is an effortful, constructive activity. Sven Birkerts describes the opening phases of this effort, as we encounter such a passage for the first time. It involves him in the need, he says, "to accustom myself to the rhythm and voice of the work. This is a big part of the struggle, making the transition from not reading to reading. . . . The words have to come alive in the ear—I have to hear them and hear them deeply". (18) To become attentive to the tone of the words, to hear the rhythms and textures at work within them, takes a rather special, extended kind of attention. A part of the work seems to be the evocation of our own concepts, memories, and feelings, which are required in order to situate the new perspective that the poem seems to be offering us; but the poetry in its turn may modify these. This kind of reading embodies a dialogical process, an interactive exchange of our concepts and feelings with those of the poet. It is a process that seems to unfold in alternating phases of receptivity and self-awareness. (19)

     No hypertext system currently available can effectively represent individual responses of this kind, whether they depend on literary comparisons, memories, or the other personal sources involved in reading a literary text. Clearly, the argument of Moulthrop that reading of this kind enforces monologism is misconceived: on the contrary, the dialogue in which we are engaged by a significant text is a major reason for turning to literature. A text "reads" us as much as we read a text, but this means pursuing our own "links," not those predetermined by a hypertext author.
     The reader's freedom to pursue interpretive pathways of her own choosing is practically enforced by many literary texts. To take two obvious examples: Coleridge's Mariner shoots the Albatross without apparent motive. Although no reason is assigned for the act, there appear to be few readers who can rest without some attempt at an explanation, whether this is due to Original Sin or the Oedipus complex, as a survey of the critical literature on the poem will show. Is the governess in James's Turn of the Screw to be praised for her heroism in confronting the ghosts at Bly, or should she be locked up for gross hallucinations? These texts provide only rather dramatic examples of a process that seems likely to occur in response to most literary texts: their structure or style calls for the reader's input if they are to be understood, but how the reader contributes is particularly dependent on her existing beliefs, memories, feelings, or dispositions. The act of reading, in turn, may work to reshape some aspects of the reader's input by qualifying feelings, placing memories within a new perspective, calling beliefs into question. Literary texts matter to us in part because they invite us to reflect on what is most distinctive about our concept or image of ourselves: they speak to what is most personal in us.

     Having retraced Wordsworth's Swiss travels on the ground, it also strikes me that reading poetry is in this respect similar to reading landscape. If I would learn what Wordsworth saw and understand his response, the landscape of the Simplon Pass now is as resistant to being "read" as the lines in The Prelude. In Wordsworth's time in 1790 the way was no more than a mule path into Italy. Today it is a major road crossing with bridges, tunnels, and galleries. The stream that Wordsworth crossed, the Laggina, is diminished by a hydroelectric scheme at the head of the valley. The walk through the Ravine that took Wordsworth and Jones three hours now takes ten minutes in a car. Thus the traveller who follows the road will see almost nothing of what Wordsworth saw. To follow Wordsworth means leaving the road to walk, climb, and explore, and then exercising the imagination somewhat like an archжologist. As I do this, climbing above the road, then pausing to reflect on what I might have seen before the modern road was built, the attentional process also seems to alternate phases of receptivity and self-awareness.

     Wordsworth's lines on the Simplon Pass offer a particular challenge to understanding. At the same time, the processes involved in attempting to understand it seem typical of those required by much literary reading. How is such reading to be facilitated by the new electronic environment? The specific issue that confronted me was designing a hypertext that offers not just Wordsworth's Prelude but a representative selection of Romantic writing.

Designing a literary hypertext

The Romanticism CD contains a number of texts and graphics that potentially cast light on Wordsworth's poem, and the crossing of the Simplon Pass in particular. This is one of the significant advantages of the electronic medium, which is practically unlimited in terms of space (and large colour graphics take up a good deal of space), bringing benefits impossible to achieve with a printed text. But the availability of other texts and colour graphics also threatens to displace the kind of literary reading I have been describing, and substitute links to further texts and pictures for the sustained attention that yields literary understanding. Unlike Landow's Milton account, I suggest that following links to contextualize Milton's poem is not the same as reading it. The other materials are important for research and study of the poem, but they are relevant to rereading it, not to the primary task of reading. (20)

     These were among the considerations that shaped the design of the Romanticism CD. In the overall structure of the CD texts are located in genre-specific tables of contents: the anthology texts, edited by Wu, are accessed through a text button, which brings up a list of authors; geographical texts and maps are available from the geography contents. Other buttons give access to tables of contents for historical texts, and a collection of materials for studying Gothic fiction. The hypertext is thus a hierarchical one, which makes it easy to learn to use (unlike non-hierarchical, multiply-interlinked hypertexts). It is also easy for a reader to return from anywhere in the hypertext to the starting point or home screen, so that readers are rarely disorientated while reading or searching.

     Among the principles for screen design, perhaps the most important is that the authoring software I chose emphasizes a single-window layout. Except for pop-up comment boxes, useful for short editorial comments or annotations, texts can only be read in full screen mode. The overlapping screens permitted by most commercial hypertext applications are not possible here, and in this respect the environment fosters the integrity of the single text and the sustained attention it requires from readers. In designing the screen for poetry (most of which was adapted from the printed text edited by Duncan Wu), I eliminated footnotes and other editorial intrusions in the text and shifted all editorial matter and link anchors to the right-hand side of the screen. This makes it possible to read a poem while ignoring the invitation to follow links or activate pop-up boxes. The same process was, unfortunately, not possible for prose, where links had to be embedded in the text (HyperWriter! did not support columns). In addition, linking from primary to secondary texts was generally kept one-way: links pointed from the secondary into the primary texts but not the reverse; the text of The Prelude, for instance, was kept largely clear of links. (21)

     Another important principle in designing the CD was to obtain multiple representations, whether this was of landscape encounters (such as the Simplon Pass), of a historical phenomenon such as the slave-trade, or of intellectual history such as theories of the picturesque. The same principle was carried through with graphics: for example, in the collection of views of the Chamonix area I was able to offer four views of the Mer de Glace by painters from the Romantic period, as well as two photographs of my own; or three Romantic period views of the ice cave at the foot of this glacier known as the Source of the Arveron, which with the retreat of the glacier has now disappeared (it plays an important part in Shelley's poem "Mont Blanc"). (22) Thus, while each representation is given space in its own right, it can also participate in a dialogue about the modes of representation and their implications, literary, historical, or ideological.
     Finally, the authoring software permitted the inclusion of reader's utilities. While reading a particular text it is possible to make a bookmark so that the reader can return to the same point in the text from anywhere in the hypertext. In this way a reader can build up an individual list of references. Readers can also annotate a text, calling up a small window in which to enter their own comments (these can be edited subsequently, exported to disk, or copied to a word processor). (23) In this way readers can personalize the software, leaving traces of their reading to orientate themselves during subsequent reading. For a teacher the software also enables tours to be designed that systematically take a reader through a selected set of texts, without relying on the hierarchical or lateral links built into the system.

The Mont Blanc Project

Some of the benefits of these design principles can be seen in a project carried out in 1998 in a course I taught on Romantic poetry and prose that lasted two terms (26 weeks). The class consisted of 18 students, and was held partly in a conventional classroom in the English Department and partly in a computer lab in an adjacent building: here students had access both to the CD on Windows-based computers and a web site that I created for the course, together with the internet resources for which I provided links. A resource such as the CD offers many potential benefits to students, such as ready access to rare texts and a rich array of graphics normally only visible in archives in Europe, but it is important to create a classroom context that facilitates students' independent work with it. For this purpose I require students to carry out projects, of the kind I will describe.

Students were first taken through the CD in the computer lab early in the course, so that they became familiar with the resources it offered. I also introduced some of the skills needed for effective project work during the first part of the term: the use of graphic forms of representation such as poster displays, techniques for discussing and recording ideas, the use of resources, including the CD and the internet, and methods of presentation. Some of these skills and methods are described in detail in a section of the CD called projects, which students report finding helpful; this section also includes an example project evaluation and several pictures of project displays mounted by previous students. To carry out a project, students are invited to form small groups (usually three or four) and choose their own research topic; some class time is allowed for group work, but groups are also expected to meet outside class time. In the 1998 course, students were required to present their projects during weeks 10 and 11 of the second term of the course.
The first project to be reported, entitled "Reading Mont Blanc," was presented by three students, Scott, Markus, and Kalyn. (24) From the six projects presented in the course, I choose this one to discuss because it provides a particularly interesting example of both the multiple forms of representation that is a principle of the design of the CD, and of the transforming response that I have argued is a principle of literary reading. On this occasion the students dramatized a transforming response to a mountain, rather than simply report on the writing of other travellers about it—such as Wordsworth or the Shelleys. (25) At the same time, their work is informed by a careful reading of travellers' texts on Chamonix and Mont Blanc.

     The presentation itself was built on the responses of three travellers to Mont Blanc, an American tourist, a climber, and a second-rate poet. In the first part, set on "the upper station of a cable car from Chamonix," we hear from each in turn about their reasons for making this visit and what they expect from it. While they speak, an impressive picture of Mont Blanc (an exaggeratedly picturesque view by W. H. Bartlett) is displayed through an overhead projector. The tourist, played by Markus, is simply there to snap a photo: "You see," he tells us, "I've got this list of the ten things you have to see when you're in Europe—and I've gotta get pictures of all of 'em . . . otherwise, what's the point of being here?" He is exasperated by the steep price of everything and by his fellow travellers. The climber is exasperated by the American, but looking forward to a climb (Kalyn brought a rucksack and climbing gear into class for her role): "Mont Blanc's slopes aren't that steep, and the ice will be easy enough to tread across." She tells us a little about the early history of ascents of Mont Blanc and the many deaths that have occurred, which she attributes to carelessness. The poet, played by Scott, has read the poets on Mont Blanc and has come prepared for a literary experience: "I, like Lord Byron, am a poet—and rather than coming to gawk mindlessly at some 'rural' quaintness, I have come to hear the mountain speak to my soul." He points to some of the responses of earlier poets, including Byron, Coleridge, and Shelley. He is dismissive of his fellow travellers: the soul of man here, he remarks, "can achieve a far greater revelation than any one can get through climbing or snapping photographs."

     After hearing from the three travellers a pause of about two minutes ensued, during which music played. The travellers then return from their encounter with Mont Blanc. Each has been changed in some critical way by the experience. The poet is riven with disappointment: he has seen nothing. "It really is soulless! What a horrendous disappointment! I think I may have to give up poetry forever!" He has found nothing on which to fix the eye: "I kept expecting to hear the mountain speak to me, but it kept slipping by me, as if it was trying to deny all the things I'd read about it, without giving me anything substantial in exchange." The tourist, on the other hand, reports being left behind on his walk: he realizes how silent it is; then suddenly he sees the sun breaking out behind the summit of the mountain and clouds drifting past it. He is transfixed by the scene, and comes back having forgotten to snap any pictures. The climber had unawares fallen into a shallow crevice: "my whole life flashed in front of my eyes just like it does in the movies, and I realized just how insignificant my life is." She is resolved to live her life differently in future: "from now on, I'm going to cherish every moment of my life and the lives of those close to me."

     In each case the shallow certainties with which the travellers approached the mountain have been destroyed; each traveller changes in some significant way as a result of the encounter with the mountain, but each change is quite different. As Scott put it in his evaluative report: "This was the sense that our group most wanted to convey: that Mont Blanc does possess a transformational power, but that it does not affect people in any objectively measurable fashion." The germ of this idea was gained while the students browsed the CD, as Markus's report describes:

The project entitled "Reading Mont Blanc" began as a faint wisp of an idea while Scott, Kalyn and I were browsing the hypertext in search of other topics. Happening upon the wonderful maps and illustrations of Wordsworth's travels through France and Switzerland, Scott remarked that perhaps we could make use of these in some manner. Then, as the various images of Mont Blanc passed before our eyes—some picturesque and others clearly sublime—we wondered if these could not somehow frame an exploration of how nature was conceived and presented by the various travel writers, 'grand tourists,' and (of course) poets of the Romantic era.

Markus goes on to report that they considered using a diagram of Mont Blanc for a poster presentation, or the use of pictures of the mountain, but deciding that these strategies would fall far short of conveying the scale of the mountain and its challenge to comprehension. "Thus we decided to climb into the skins of those who had beheld the 'monarch of mountains' and to speak, as it were, with their tongues."

     In addition to reading the well-known poems on Mont Blanc, the students had also clearly benefited from the descriptions of other lesser known travellers from the Romantic period available on the CD, such as Thomas Martyn, John Moore, Henri de Saussure, and Mariana Starke, as well as finding further writing in the university library by later nineteenth and twentieth century travellers and mountain climbers. Kalyn in particular made a point of studying recent books about climbing Mont Blanc, and she concludes her report by mentioning that the project has "awakened a desire and interest in myself to rock climb," and that she hoped to enrol in the training in rock climbing offered at the university (not one of the predicted benefits of a course in Romanticism).

     In conclusion, the hypertext for these students has provided a fruitful environment for reading and studying Romantic literature and the response to landscape. Their project provides an example (a particularly clear one) of the students' own voices in constructive response to what they found: their project is distinctive, thoughtful, engaged, and creative. They have read Wordsworth, Shelley, and other poets and travel writers on the CD attentively and questioningly; they are alert to differences in the historical dialogue about the meaning of the mountain. They provide multiple interpretations of the same scene, which makes dramatic use of the landscape and its impressive spatial qualities; at the same time their responses clearly transcend the "writing space" of the hypertext in order to enact a transforming experience. Their project in this way reflects the modifying power of literature which challenges the way we think and feel, discussed by Coleridge, Shelley, and other writers of the period in their theoretical accounts.

     Whether the design of the Romanticism CD provides a model that will be useful for future products is too early to tell. It represents an alternative to the model of hypertext that recent theorists have been proposing, as I have tried to show, and one that appears to be productive for use in the literature classroom. It does so by respecting the distinction between reading literary texts and studying them, and by facilitating the realization of multiple perspectives through a more generous array of texts and graphics than would be feasible in any single print publication. Whatever the fate of the printed book, the literary tradition that it fostered seems alive and well in this new electronic form.

David S. Miall
University of Alberta

[1]               This public meeting was called formally in 2001 by the Parish council of an English village in response to requests from local people, following the announcement of a “Field Scale Trial” of a GM crop in a field next to the village.  The meeting was chaired by a member of the Parish Council, and included a panel of three speakers, representing DEFRA (the UK government Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs), the biotechnology company carrying out the trial, anvironmental organisation. 

[2] The reduction of causality to regularity is only one view of causality – what is often referred to as Humean causality, the view of causality associated with the philosopher David Hume (Sayer 2000; Fairclough, Jessop and Sayer forthcoming).