Шпаргалка по "История английского языка"

The eastern United States has a varied topography. A broad, flat (плоский) coastal plain (равнинные) lines. On areas, which are not near the sea, there are a lot of rolling hills and temperate forests. The five Great Lakes are located in the north-central part of the country, four of them forming part of the border with Canada. The southeast United States contain subtropical forests, and near the gulf coast, mangrove wet-lands, especially in Florida.

The Great Plains lie west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains in the USA anв Canada. The area covers parts of the United states of Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas and Wyoming. A large portion of the country’s agricultural products are grown in the Great Plains.

While the Atlantic coast is relatively low, the Pacific coast is, with few exceptions, hilly or mountainous. The low Atlantic coast and hilly or mountainous Pacific coast foreshadow the leading features in the distribution of mountains in the USA. The east coast Appalachian system, originally forest covered, is relatively low and narrow and is bordered on the southeast and south by an important coastal plain.

The Cordilleran system on the western side of the continebt is lofty очень высокий, broad and complicated having 2 branches: The Rocky Mountain Sysem and The Pacific Mountain System. In between these, lie Intermontane (межгорные) Plateaus (divided into the Columbia Plateau, the Colorado Plateau and the Basin and Range Province; it is setting (окружена) for the Grand Canyon, the Great Basin and Death Valley).

2. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS (CA) OR CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS: 'Contrastive linguistics' (or CL) is synonymous with 'contrastive analysis' (CA) but only the latter is a countable noun. It is a form of comparative linguistics, related forms being 'comparative diachronic linguistics' and 'synchronic linguistic typology'. Unique to CL is that its purview is limited to a pair of languages. There is no requirement for the language pair to be in any way 'related'. The development of CA has been from an applied to a theoretical discipline and back. It arose as an extrapolation from the language contact studies of Weinreich (1953) and Haugen (1956), describing the erosion of immigrants' first language by their new language. Lado (1957) investigated the converse: interference in learning a second language emanating from one's first . More recently CL has been practised by linguists in search of cross-linguistic confirmation of hypotheses emanating from monolingual analyses: for example, the syntax of the PRO-drop parameter has been progressively refined through submitting it to validation across a range of language-pairs. CL has regained its original practical significance under the aegis of Interlanguage studies and of Language Awareness (LA) work. Eric Hawkins (1984) proposes a 'new trivium' of language study for schools, in which LA work incorporating simple CAs should serve as interface between mother tongue (MT) and foreign language (FL) study. It has been shown through experimental teaching that raising FL learners' awareness of MT:FL contrasts facilitates the learning of difficult FL structures (Kupferberg & Olshtain, 1996).

While traditional CL compares the learner's mother tongue with the foreign language to be learnt, current applied CL compares the (often erroneous) learner's version of the FL (his interlanguage) with the standard target language (TL) version. This development signals the replacement of Lado's original predictive CL with the current descriptive Crosslingistic and the diagnostic Transfer Analysis expounded in Gass & Selinker (1983) and Odlin (1989). For a handy history, survey and assessment of CL see James (1990). The journal Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics, recently retitled Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics (Volume 37 dated 2001) carries quality papers on all aspects of CL. An outstanding monograph on theoretical CL is Hawkins (1986), a book that "unifies the [syntactic] contrasts" between English and German.

Rationales for teaching CL

CL is a relevant and rewarding study area for three types of student:

i) Students of 'applied linguistics' intending to teach a foreign language (mainly EFL). Since MT interference accounts for some 30% of error, to understand language transfer mechanisms in such a way as to be able to devise materials and learning activities that control them is important. While the original psychological foundation of MT interference was Behaviourist, it can equally cogently be accommodated within a Cognitivist psychological framework.

ii) Students of modern FLs will benefit from language-specific, descriptive CL courses which will serve as an aid to their own more autonomous learning and as a background to the self-diagnosis and remediation of their errors, spoken and written.

iii) Students of (theoretical/descriptive) Linguistics will need to undertake CL projects in order to put received hypotheses about the occurrence of phenomena like PRO-drop, resumptive pronoun, WH-movement etc. to the empirical test. A class based on a dozen such focussed CAs can generate an interesting set of universal claims, the validation of which becomes a well-motivated exercise.

Organising the CL syllabus

The exposition of CL proceeds level-by-level, and the traditional three levels of lexis, sound and syntax provide ample scope. Sometimes, level shifts are identified: for example, what L1 does through lexis L2 does through grammar. CAs of sound systems involve phonetic or phonological contrasts, relevant to identifying types of 'foreign accent'. Lexical CL invokes phenomena such as false friends and students enjoy doing CAs of word fields such as 'cooking verbs', 'saying verbs' (say/speak/talk/tell) or 'kinship terms'. Syntax sees contrasts of three kinds: structural, categorial and functional. More recently we have seen some new developments: contrastive pragmatics (Oleksy, 1989; Wierzbicka,1991) and contrastive rhetoric (Connor, 1996), a popular and useful component of which in the CL class is contrastive genre analysis: students enjoy investigating contrasts between ways that different languages textualise genres such as news bulletins, orbituaries, and so on.

The rise of Cognitive Grammar has revived the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis of linguistic determinism. Slobin reports research on the expression of verbal aspect and the lexicalisation of verbs of motion by MT English-, Spanish-, German- and Hebrew-acquiring children. He takes the view that speakers of each language pay the selective attention to reality in ways that their language imposes on them, but do so NOT in their private thinking but when they are doing the thinking needed for speaking. Slobin thus suggests the notion of thinking for speaking. One's MT therefore affects not one's mental capacity (competence) but one's performance, the process of speaking. In his paper Slobin addresses the implications of his findings for foreign language teaching and learning - and rediscovers Lado's CA hypothesis:

"Much of value could be learned from a systematic study of those systems in particular second languages that speakers of particular first languages find especially difficult to master." (Slobin: 23)

A methodology for teaching CL.

CL theory is not too demanding. The practice of CL is more so. Some suggested procedures:

1. Supply references to descriptions of linguistic phenomena in the students' MT: 
Accessible reference grammars such as Greenbaum and Quirk (1990) or Cobuild (1990) are adequate. Any available corpus data should be referenced at this time.

2. In groups of 3 - 4, students should produce parallel descriptions of 'the same' phenomenon in the FL. This task raises the problems of comparability, equivalence and congruence - in short, what CL theory refers to as the tertium comparationis (Krzeszowski, 1990). The descriptions of MT and FL should be couched in the same metalanguage where possible: any difficulties with metalanguage that are encountered here should be noted as relevant.

3. The contrasts identified should be categorised and ranked in strength (reflecting relative learning difficulty).

4. The non-contrasts or (near) identities should likewise be identified, described and ranked for strength, which is taken as an indicator of learning facilitation.

5. Since steps 1-4 have involved description and prediction, step 5 should involve the verification of the predictions of the CA. An error survey should be be undertaken to verify whether learners do indeed commit the errors predicted.

6. This step is different for students whose main interest is linguistic theory and those who are interested in teaching. The former can be motivated to enquire why the predictions were not endorsed by the error corpus, and, having located the problem in, say, a descriptive weakness of the descriptive model, to modify that model so as to make future predictions more successful. Intending teachers prefer to move directly on to the design of remedial classroom activities and materials. 

17. LEXICAL BORROWINGS IN THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

      When Angles, Saxons and Jutes settled in Britain, they ousted the native Celtic population, their language became the dominant one and only few traces of Celtic influence remains in the language. They were the names of some towns: London, Leeds; names of places in Scotland and Ireland: Aberdeen, Dunbar, Dundee, Kilkenny. Rivers often have Celtic names. Some topographical names are taken from Celts: cumb, bog, cumb; some common words.

      Latin words entered OE at different stages of  history, there are several layers of them. The earliest layer includes Latin words which were adopted by West-Germanic tribes in their commercial contacts with the Romans on the continent. These words denote objects of trade, measure, weigh, objects of domestic life, wine, fruit, vegetables.

      Due to the influence of Christianity there came the words connected with religion and learning: bishop, candle, devil, mass, school, grammar, notary, decline, etc.

      There were the translation-loans. The most ancient ones are names of the week days from ancient Romans and Germanic tribes. Other terms belong to Latin translations from Greek : Gospell, goldsmith, astronomy, monger, etc. Most Latin words were treated in OE texts like native words and were all completely assimilated. 

29. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

Using a language as a primary means of communicating our thoughts is so natural for many people that it is often difficult to realize what in fact are language functions. Some of the roles of language are so mundane that they are hardly ever noticed, others are very elevated, or even abstract. Due to their diversity the functions of language might be divided into two categories: micro functions which refer to specific individual uses, and macro functions which serve more overall aims.

MICRO FUNCTIONS:

· Physiological function (releasing physical and nervous energy)

Although it might be striking this use of language is fairly common. It is easily recognizable when devoted fans of sports are observed while watching their favourite discipline on TV. Such fans often shout instructions, express support, or disappointment and while as a means of communicating with sportsmen they are useless, such cheers are to release repressed energy. Similarly curse words are used to serve this purpose, as they rarely convey any meaning and are only to make the speaker feel better.

· Phatic function (for sociability)

The use of such phrases as ‘nice day today’, or ‘how do you do’ is characterized by lack of any informative content and is intended to link people and make the coexistence peaceful and pleasant. The phatic use of language is characteristic mainly of speech, however, in certain types of writing it can also be noticed, as in letters for example, where the beginning Dear Sir/Madam and ending Yours faithfully also serve that purpose.

· Recording function

Recording function denotes using language to make a durable record of things that ought to be remembered. Owing to its omnipresence writing is probably the most significant function of language. There is evidence that the first writing system was developed in the Middle East as early as 4000 BC. At the beginning writing systems took forms of pictures representing the things they referred to, gradually developing into the alphabets in their present forms.

· Identifying function

Language is used also to identify the objects and events in the world we live in. Without this function language would be almost useless, as it is thanks to the names of things that we know what is talked about. Many primitive societies unable to write believe that names hold great power. Even in western culture names are thought to be immensely important: the God’s name ought not to be used in vain, before giving a name to a newborn child parents consider the choice deeply. We use names to classify different types of things, whether we call a car anautomobile, a lorry, a van or a truck makes a big difference.

·  Reasoning function (instrument of thought)

Before we say something we think and to do that we necessarily use language. In most cases it is extremely difficult to think about anything without any use of words. In fact is it also difficult not to think for a longer period of time as human brains work all the time processing information, thus providing us with concepts formulated by means of language.

· Communicating function

This function would probably be pointed at by most language users without major consideration. Indeed it is in all likelihood most commonly used language function by majority of speakers. Requesting, apologizing, informing, ordering as well as promising and refusing are all reasons for communicating our ideas.

· Pleasure functions

The fact that language often gives pleasure both to the speakers and listeners is not only supported by the frequent use of assonance, alliteration and onomatopoeia in poetry. Depending on the sounds of languages some are perceived as being mild as English for example, others crude as German. People also derive pleasure from unusual use of syntactic rules, as well as novelties of meanings juxtapositions and language games, which is often used by skilful writers.

MACRO FUNCTIONS:

· Ideational function

Ideational function refers to the conceptualizing process involved in our mental activities. Thanks to language we are able to understand what happens around us.

· Interpersonal function

Interpersonal function emphasizes that language is mainly a social phenomenon, but apart from enabling communication with other people it enables to project the speaker in the desired way and to represent the speaker.

· Poetic function

Here, the word poetic does not refer to the ability to write poetry, but the ability to manipulate language in a creative way. With the use of jokes and metaphors we can play with words and meanings simply for joy.

· Textual function

Textual competence refers to our ability to create long utterances or pieces of writing which are both cohesive and coherent. Unlike animals people, by use of certain linguistic devices, are able to produce long sentences and text, and not only simple phrases.

The above mentioned functions are only one point of view on language. Most certainly there are many other functions that natural languages fulfill, yet depending on approach to this issue the number of functions and their names might vary. 

8.FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVE

Forms:  

Functions in sentence:

-as a subject: To doubt, under the circumstance, is almost – Сомневаться при так обстоятельствах – это почти означает нанести оскорбление

To acquire knowledge and to acquire it unceasingly, is the first duty of the artist. – Получать знания и получать их беспрерывно – вот первый долг художника.

-as a predicative: My intention is to get into parliament  - Моя цель – пройти в парламент.

-as part of predicative: The abode of Mrs. Betty was not easy to find – Жилище миссис Бетти было нелегко найти.

-as part of a compound verbal predicate:

a)modal and modality: The train was to leave at midnight

b)beginning, duration, end of action: Imprisonment began to tell upon him.

-as an object: Leila had learned to dance at boarding school.

After the verbs to allow, to order, to ask, to beg, to request, 'to implore, to teach," to instruct we often find two objects, one of which is expressed by an infinitive.

The infinitive used as an object can be preceded by the intro ductory  object   it. He found it utterly impossible to leave the spot. (Hardy) Он считал совершенно невозможным покинуть это место.

-as part of complex object: I never_saw_you act this way before - Я никогда раньше не видел, чтобы вы так поступали.

-as attribute: The infinitive as an attribute is rendered in Russian by an infinitive (chiefly after abstract nouns), by a subordinate clause or by a finite verb serving as the predicate of a simple sentence (after ordinal numerals and the adjective last).