Шпаргалка по "История английского языка"

 21. HIERARCHY OF LINGUISTIC FORMS (UNITS)  INTRODUCTION

 Linguistics is highly structured science. Traditionally there are some different levels of research (syntax, etc.), which are usually studied separately. In the modern linguistics the tendency for inter level interactions(взаимодействие) is obvious (очевидно)(cf. the lexical component in generative grammars), however, these interactions are external, not an organic part of the corresponding theories, because usually they start at one of the fixed levels. In our opinion, the synthesis of ideas of different levels of linguistic research is very important, provided that it allows for preserving the level structure where it is relevant and necessary.

 In particular, we think that there should exist some features common for all the linguistic objects, and this set of features should determine the base object linguistic object hierarchy. This abstract object should not belong to any of the traditional linguistic levels but instead should organically unify them.

  Fig. 1. The linguistic object hierarchy using parameters.

 Thus, what concept was (1) most widely discussed in linguistics in its historical development, (2) is abstract enough and (3) does not belong to any specific linguistic level but instead is common for all such levels? It is a linguistic sign. Thus, the corresponding programming object (type, or class) can be used as the most abstract linguistic object in the object hierarchy.

 What is a linguistic sign? Practically all linguistic theories that proclaim the explanations of the basic language phenomena use this notion. Starting from the ancient Greece, then F. de Saussure, Prague linguistic school, Ch. Morris, L. Bloomfield and other linguists discussed this notion a lot[4]. In simple words, a sign is a function: a way to express (associate) some meaning with some observable thing. The thing used to express the meaning is called signifier, the meaning expressed with it is called signified. However, the signs used in language have yet third, key feature: they affect each other when are used together. All phenomena related to such mutual affection are called their syntactics[5][6].

 •       Syntactics is the relations between signs in a flow of speech. This is a specific and very important part of a linguistic sign. Roughly speaking, it tells us what words can be used together and in what form, for example, bird + flies is a grammatical English phrase, but bird + fly or in + flew are not; the word well in the context well done has another meaning than in the context deep well[7], etc.

 The majority of linguistic entities are signs, because they have signifier, semantics, and syntactics. Some entities don’t have semantics (like phonemes).

 So far the concept of sign had little practical consequences because it is too abstract. However, in our opinion it proves to be useful in object-oriented programming as the most abstract linguistic entity.

 linguistic unit - one of the natural units into which linguistic messages can be analyzed

 language unit

 discourse - extended verbal expression in speech or writing

 word - a unit of language that native speakers can identify; "words are the blocks from which sentences are made"; "he hardly said ten words all morning"

 syllable - a unit of spoken language larger than a phoneme; "the word `pocket' has two syllables"

 lexeme - a minimal unit (as a word or stem) in the lexicon of a language; `go' and `went' and `gone' and `going' are all members of the English lexeme `go'

 morpheme - minimal meaningful language unit; it cannot be divided into smaller meaningful units

 formative - minimal language unit that has a syntactic (or morphological) function

 name - a language unit by which a person or thing is known; "his name really is George Washington"; "those are two names for the same thing"

 string - a linear sequence of symbols (characters or words or phrases)

 collocation - a grouping of words in a sentence

 speech sound, phone, sound - (phonetics) an individual sound unit of speech without concern as to whether or not it is a phoneme of some language

 sign - a fundamental linguistic unit linking a signifier to that which is signified; "The bond between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary"--de Saussure

 component part, part, portion, component, constituent - something determined in relation to something that includes it; "he wanted to feel a part of something bigger than himself"; "I read a portion of the manuscript"; "the smaller component is hard to reach"; "the animal constituent of plankton" 

 22. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN

 General Introduction

 Contrastive analysis also brings to light what can be labelled problem pairs, the words that denote two entities in one language and correspond to two different words in another language.

 Compare, for example годинник in Ukrainian and clock, watch in English, художник in Ukrainian and artist, painter in English.

 Contrastive analysis on the level of the grammatical meaning reveals that correlated words in different languages may differ in the grammatical component of their meaning.

 To take a simple instance Ukrainians are liable to say the news are good, the money are on the table, her hair are black, as the words новини, гроші, волосся have the grammatical meaning of plurality in the Ukrainian language.

 Contrastive analysis brings to light the essence of what is usually described as idiomatic English, idiomatic Ukrainian the peculiar way in which every language combines and structures in lexical units various concepts to denote extra-linguistic reality.

 Last but not least contrastive analysis deals with the meaning and use of situational verbal units, words, word-groups, sentences which are commonly used  by native speakers in certain situations.

 To sum up contrastive analysis cannot be overestimated as an indispensable stage in preparation of teaching material, in selecting lexical items to be extensively practiced and in predicting typical errors. It is also of great value for an efficient teacher who knows that to have a native like command of a foreign language, to be able to speak what we call idiomatic English, words, word-groups and whole sentences must be learned within the lexical, grammatical and situational restrictions of the English language. 

 23. FALSE EQUIVALENT – is a word, completely or partly coincide in sound or graphic shape with foreign word. But it has different meaning. That’s why it’s easy to make a mistake in translation. For example, English word “artist”, French “artiste”, Spanish “artista”, denotes the man of Art or painter, in German “artist” denotes actor in a circus or on stage, and Russian “artist”, has common meaning for all cultural works, such as performer in theatre (opera and belly, dancer, worker in circus and stage). Here is one more example, the German word “Dramaturg” – “director”, and also “manager of repertory in theatre”, and Russian word “dramaturg” – “author of dramatic  books”, “writer in theater”.

 False friends of interpreter is not a problem for translator., but it should be mentioned, because of inaccuracy in common bilingual dictionaries and also because false equivalent may be applied in the context without causing any doubts.

 The dictionary English-Russian/ Russian-English of false friends of translator was created under the editorship of V.V. Akulenko(1969), “German-Russian and Russian-German dictionary of “fake friends of tran” created by G.M. Gotlibom (1972), “Sous-amis or fake friends of translator” by V.A. Muraviova. All this books contain 2 parts – foreign–Russian and Russian-foreign, where words have one graphic, phonetic structure, but different meaning.

 Accuracy – аккуратность

 1.точность, правильность.2. меткость(о стрельбе) в английском яз.

 1.систематичность,  регулярность2.пунктуальность, точность(время)3. (о качестве работы) тщательность, точность. 4. (внешний облик) опрятность, чистоплотность. 

 24.AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR, AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

 The main reason of the struggle for Indepen. of the colonies was to get free from England in the sphere of economy (industry and trade). And then the love of freedom.

 England limited her colonies in development of industry and trade, and it’s proved by the documents. Acts of 1750 prohibited the manufacture of iron. But colonies need it for farming, construction, every day life. In 1761 the English government made it obligatory for American justice to help to fight smugglers. But most of Am. trade went on as smuggling. Because the English goods had high prices and taxes. At that time lawyer of Salem’s and Boston merchants, James Otis, went to court. At that moment nobody thought of organizing separate states.

 The colonies occupied land on West. And fight with Indians. October 1761 Henry Bouquet forbad settlement west of the mountains. The Act was signed by George 3 on October7, 1763.

 In 1764 was issued Currency Act about paper money in all colonies.

 1765 Quartering Act required the civil authorities in the colonies to supply barracks and British troops.

 March22, 1765 Stamp Act (Акт о гербовом сборе)was the 1st direct tax levied by Parliament upon America.  The Parliament would like to get 60,000 annually.  Tax was placed upon new papers, legal docs, insurance policies, ship’s papers, even dice and playing cards. This tax followed the colonists wherever they went. Merchants struggled using the method of nonimportation. Business was suspended, but before the end of the year it was renewed, because the Act was repealed (March 1766).

 In June 1767 the Act of Charles Townshend was issued. It was introducing external taxes (on glass, lead, paints, paper and tea). In London, Benjamin F. said to the Parliament, that if the army would be sent to make the colonies pay the taxes they wouldn’t  find revolution there, but might become the cause of the revolution.

 The  Virginia Association. G. Washington, Thomas Jefer., Patrick Henry. It adopted a nonimportation agreement on British goods (except paper).

 In 1770 Boston Massacre took place. Then the Battle of Alamance took place. It crushed the farmer  movement (many of whom had no firearms).

 The Boston tea party took place. Some of “Sons of Liberty” get on board East India Company’s ship and dump 342 boxes of tea into the harbor. The answer was Boston Port Bill (the port was closed for trade).

 The 1st continental congress was made in 1774. It worked 7 weeks. All colonies participated, except Georgia. The representatives ask England for cancelation of the latest Acts and for the fairness according colonies. If not colonies would fight for it. Here should be one more congress, but very soon the conflict grew into military action.

 Separation of the Colonies 1776. France and Spain decided to aid Am. Some states declared themselves free and independent. On july 4, 1776, the Decl. of Indep. was approved. It stated that people had the right for life, freedom and the right to choose the type of government. But the historical significance of the Declarative of Independence was in the fact that for the 1st time in history the idea of the government by the people was formulated in an official state doc. This idea  was used to install the power of bourgeoisie.  The authors of Decl. were Th. Jef., Ben. Franklin, John Adams, Robert Livingston and  Roger Sherman.

 the significance of the war for independence

 One cannot overestimate the significance of the Am/ revolution, although it has certain limitations. Enumerating the main ones the positive outcomes are:

 1) Liquidation of colonies and colonial dependence

 2) Abolition of feudal landowning (Royal forests, etc)

 3) stipulation of development of national economy on capitalist basis

 4) formation of national home market;

 5 )creation of foreign markets for USA;

 6) a more free spreading of religious beliefs;

 7) promotion of education (creation schools, univ., libraries, etc.)

 8) speeding up of the formation of the American nation

 For all those positive traits there were things still to be done and overcome:

1. Ordinary people, the masses, expected much more from revolution, but got much less;
2. Inflation (prices low, no money to pay debts);
3. Great government debt;
4. Rich merchants and enterprisers threatened to ruin the young bourgeois democratic state;
5. A conservative constitution was eventually adopted in 1787;
6. Workers and farmers didn’t get any political prerogatives in their names.

 One must stress that the War for Indeped. had great international influence as it evidently worked for the French revolution of 1793. Karl Marx called the Am. Revolut. the tolling bell for the European bourgeoisies in its fight against feudalism and monarchy. The progressive Europeans politics and met the victory with gladness. 

 25. ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD

 Beginning with the end of 8th c the Danes and generally  Northmen started their regular raids onto the British Isles. The way of their life was look like Viking’s one. The Norwegians mostly aimed at Ireland which had escaped both Roman and Anglo-Saxon invasions. The Danes grew bolder and in 842 London was burned down The Danes were professional fighters and had a new method of war. Constant raids of the Northmen, fire and death, desolation ruled in England. Until Alfred, the only king who received the title of “Great, concluded a peace treaty with the Danes by offering them a considerable booty in 876. But the D. violated the agreement and Alfred had to fight a battle which he lost. But Alfred, heaving combined skill and force, won a victory in 879. He forced the enemy to make peace, and since that time England was divided into equal halves; a) the Danelaw lying north and east b) Saxon England lying south and west

 Alfred had military genius and he understood the Danes were giving England a temporary rest. Also he produced a number of reforms: a) military, b) creation of navy, c) fortified burghs, d) an army reform.

 The navy was built on the continent, the ship were superior to those of the Danes.

 Alfred created the 1st Anglo-Saxon code of law. By this code a system of fines was created by which the attempt for murder of a lord lead to a capital punishment. Al. had his funds coming from his manors and taxation, so-called “Danish money”. As a result of all these steps the kingdom of Wessex became stronger and was capable of defense against the Danes.

 King Al promoted education and culture in England.  He studied himself and made others study as well. At 39 he studied Latin and translated 5 books in 893-900. He created a school for young people.

 The outcome of this period included economic changes: the greater use of iron and spreading of the trade, town-building.

 The end of Saxon England is marked by the following social and political traits: the consolidation of England into a single state with sheriffs at the head responsible to the king. Above the sheriffs was the Ealdorman. The lords were granted to hold courts of their own from which they obtained an income of fines. The methods used were trials by ordeal and oath. The society was based on freemen (doing military service for land), sheriffs (holding land from lords’ land). “No man without a lord” and “no land without a lord” can be fully applied to England from this time.

 But a new Danish invasion started when Ethelred the Redeless was the king. He married Emma, the daughter of Richard 1, Duke of Normandy. But the Danes went on burning southern parts of England. Then the Danish king Canute became the king, after he died there were feudal wars for throne among the Danes themselves.

 In conclusion, I can add that  Alfred seems to be one of the most prominent educators of the nation. his laws promoted learning languages and the first libraries in England were founded under his rule. Much of what is now available in Old English was created or preserved thanks to Alfred the Great. 

 26. CHRISTIANITY is the largest religion today. Started at around 30 AD. It's based on the teaching and life of Jesus Christ.

 1st Kingdom to be Christianized was Kent (597), then Northumbria (625). Mercia remained pagan for quite a long time. The pagan king of Mercia, Penda struggled against the Christian Northumbria. He killed the Northumbria king Edwin and N. quickly reverted to pagan religion. It’s period of Christianity being only 8 year. As soon as new king was crowned in Northumbria , he brought with him the Celtic type of Christianity.

 Christianity in pre-Saxon Britain was presented by 2 trends: 1) the British trend  closely connected with the church of Rome 2) the Irish  trend which  was more or less independent of Rome and had specific traits. The mission to Ireland was headed by St. Patrick. the mission to Britons was headed by St. Illtud. The representative of the Irish variant of Christianity, St. Columba, a man of royal blood, found a monastery on the Iona Island.  King Oswald was educated at this monastery. He brought to his court a monk by the name of Aidan. In 642 Oswald was killed in a battle by pagan king of Mercia, Penda. This time Nortambria remained Christian.

 In the 7th c the North of England became the stronghold of Christianity, but of the Irish type. The roman type spread on the south of England. In 664 roman and celtic Christians met at Whitby to decide their points of difference. The Roman variant won a victory. The nearest Roman Christian country was France which had the greatest influence on England. The victory of Rome at Synod was therefore a victory for feudalism and all that feudalism involved. With coming of Christianity England received the Latin alphabet and educated people. It brought monasteries with their schools and chronicles. 

 28. ОСНОВНІ КЛАСИФІКАЦІЇ МОВ СВІТУ

 Classification Of The World Languages

 A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common ancestor(предок), called the proto-language of that family. The term comes from the Tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a biological family tree or in a subsequent modification to species in a phylogenetic tree of evolutionary taxonomy. All the apparently biological terms are used only in the metaphoric sense. No real biology is included in any way in the metaphor. As of early 2007, SIL Ethnologue catalogued 6,912 living human languages. A "living language" is simply one which is in wide use as a primary form of communication by a specific group of living people. The exact number of known living languages will vary from 5,000 to 10,000, depending generally on the precision of one's definition of "language", and in particular on how one classifies dialects. There are also many dead and, distinct from dead, extinct languages. Membership of languages in the same language family is established by comparative linguistics. Daughter languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship; the former term is more current in modern times, but the latter is equally as traditional. The evidence of linguistic relationship is observable shared characteristics that are not attributed to borrowing. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language (or reflexes of such features) that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing (convergence). Membership in a branch or group within a language family is established by shared innovations; that is, common features of those languages which are not attested in the common ancestor of the entire family. For example, what makes Germanic languages "Germanic" is that they share vocabulary and grammatical features which are not believed to have been present in Proto-Indo-European. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, a descendant of Proto-Indo-European that was the source of all Germanic languages.