Шпаргалка по "История английского языка"

 Other classifications of languages

 Most of the world's languages are known to belong to language families. Those that have no known relatives (or for which family relationships are only tentatively proposed) are called language isolates, which can be thought of as minimal language families. An example is Basque. It is generally assumed that most language isolates have relatives, but at a time depth too great for linguistic comparison to recover. Languages that cannot be reliably classified into any family are known as language isolates. A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as Armenian within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate, but the meaning of isolate in such cases is usually clarified. For instance, Armenian may be referred to as an Indo-European isolate. By contrast, so far as is known, the Basque language is an absolute isolate: it has not been shown to be related to any other language despite numerous attempts, though it has been influenced by neighboring Romance languages. A language may be said to be an isolate currently but not historically, if related but now extinct relatives are attested. 
 

 30. ГОВІРКА.ДІАЛЕКТ...

 Every language has it’s own dialecticism, colloquialism, mixed dialects.

 Literary language is the highest form of language. It has such features:1) double nature – oral and written 2) common meaning 3) wide spreading on the whole speaking territory

 Literary language is the form of public language, which is characterized by oral and written variants, developed system of styles and serves all spheres of public activity.

 Excising of Literary language needs certain level of public organization and its educational institutions, users and spheres where it may be applied. L.L. is based on dialect of public language.

 Dialect – is a form of public lang, which is a way of communication on the land or serves the social group of people. It’s the lower form of p.l. It has more variants, but the sphere of using is limited. Studying dialects is an important part history of language, ethnography, and history of peoples. There are 2 types of dialects: territory and social.

 The 1st one has phonetic, grammatical and lexical features. For example, on North Germany Stra?e, but on south Gasse. In G.B. 4 major dialects are distinguished: Lowland Scotch, Northern, Midland (central) and Southern.

 But this dialect doesn’t separate nation. Chinese have 4 types of dialects and they are still relate themselves to one nation. Russian philologist, Alexander Schachmatov, thought that for history of language dialects more important than literary language.

  The 2d one(social d.) has something specific for sure, something which is not relate to public language, mostly borrowings from other languages. We can relate jargon to this type of d. Jargon – is a type of separate language of stable group, united by social conditions, age, profession, interests, which can be recognized by lexis and morpheme.

 Colloquialism, koine and mixed languages. They placed between Literary lang and dialect. Colloquialism characterized by indecent (ненормативность) features. It’s form of public lang, which includes all linguistics phenomenon, that is not dialect and literary, and doesn’t have territorial or social borders. Koine is the common language, which was formed with the help planning dialect differences. It has been forming in economic, politics, military, as the way of understanding other users of the dialects for long time. Mixed language fluid lang, which has some units from different lang-s appeared there without any rules.  For the Ukrainian language the problem of m. l. became popular on 20 C, beginning 21C, because of Russian lang. And it’s influence bad on Literary language.  

7. MODAL VERBS are used to show speaker’s attitude towards the action or the state indicated by infinitive, i.e. they show that the action indicated by the infinitive is considered as possible, impossible, probable, improbable, necessary, doubtful or uncertain, etc. The modal verbs are: can (could), may (might), must, should, ought, shall, will, would, need, dare. Modal verbs called defective because all of them (except DARE and NEED) lack verbals and analytical forms (i.e. compound tenses, analytical forms of Subjunctive mood, The Passive voice). Besides they don’t take –s in the third person singular. They also have the following peculiarities:  1) All of them (except ought and sometimes dare and need) are followed by the infinitive without to; 2) All of them (except dare and need) form the negative and interrogative form without the auxiliary do; 3) All the modal verbs have two negative forms—full  one and a contracted one.

 CAN.  (может, может быть)The verb can has two forms: can for the present tense and could for the past tense.  Can expresses the ability or capability, possibility, incredulity or doubt, astonishment.

 1 Physical or mental ability.

 In this meaning it can be used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

 2 Possibility

 (a) Due to circumstances

 (b) Due to the exsisting laws

 3 Incredulity, doubt, astonishment (they are closely conected)

 In this meanings CAN is used with all the forms of the Infinitive in interrogative and negative, through astonishment is expressed only in interrogative sentences.

 COULD with the perfect infinitive has almost the same meaning as CAN with the perfect Infinitive, only the negation is not so categoric as with CAN.

 If the action refers to the past, the perfect infinitive is mostly used.  Other forms of the infinitive are hardly ever used.

 MAY. (может быть, возможно) The verb MAY has two forms: MAY for the Present Tense and MIGHT for the Past Tense. The expressions to be allowed and to be permitted, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb MAY.

 May expresses permission, uncertainty, possibility, reproach.

 1 Permission

 May expressing permission is used only with the indefinite infinitive.

 May I read? – No, don’t, please

 DON’T is less strict than MAY NOT, it is rather asking somebody not to do something than actually prohibiting something, which is expressed by MAY NOT.

 2 Uncertainty as to fulfillment of an action, state of occurrence, supposition implying doubt.

 NOT which follows MAY expressing uncertainty is always strongly stressed. This meaning of MAY is rendered in Russian by может быть, возможно.

 Sometimes MIGHT expresses greater reserve or uncertainty on the part of the speaker than MAY.

 MIGHT instead of MAY is often used because of the sequence  of tenses.  MAY denoting uncertainty is used all the forms of the infinitive.

 3 Possibility due to circumstances.

 MAY is used in this sense only in affirmative sentences. CAN is also possible in this meaning.

 In this meaning it is generally used with the indefinite infinitive.

 4 Reproach

 Only MIGHT is used in this meaning, but not MAY.

 MUST. (должно быть)The verb must has only one form. The expressions to have to and to be obliged to, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing tense forms of the verb MUST.

 MUST expresses obligation, necessity, an urgent command or prohibition, and a supposition bordering on assurance.

 1 obligation, necessity.

 (a) Due to circumstances (in this meaning it is equivalent to HAVE TO and is used only with the indefinite infinitive in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences ).

 (b) Arising out of the nature of man and consequently inevitable.

 2 A command, urgent (emphatic) request or a prohibition. In this meaning it is used only with the indefinite infinitive.

 3 probability or supposition. Supposition boarding on assurance, almost a conviction. In this meaning MUST is used with all the forms of the infinitive in affirmative sentences only. It corresponds to the Russian  должно быть.

 If the action refers to the present the indefinite infinitive is used; if the action refers to the past the perfect infinitive is used.

 SHOULD and OUGHT .  (должно )The modal verbs SHOULD and OUGHT are treated together  here as there is hardly any difference between them. Very often they are interchangeable. There is, however, a difference in construction. Whereas SHOLD is followed by the infinitive without TO, OUGHT is always followed by the TO-infinitive. When reference is made to the present or future, the indefinite infinitive is used. When reference is made to the past the perfect infinitive shows that the obligation wasn’t carried out.

 Both SHOULD and OUGTH express obligation. Something which is advisably, proper or naturally expected.

 1 obligation. Very often a moral obligation or duty. In this meaning OUGHT is more often used than SHOULD.

 2 Advisability. In this meaning SHOULD is more common than SHOULD , as it always shows some personal interest whereas OUGHT is more matter-of-fact.

 3 Something which can be naturally expected.  

 Shall Shall is never a purely modal verb. It always combines it’s modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity. It expresses determination on the part of the speaker, i.e. compulsion or order, threat or warning, promise.

 As a rule SHALL as modal verb is not translated into Russian, its meaning is rendered emphatic intonation.

 1 Compulsion or strict order. In this meaning it is always used with the 2-nd and 3-rd persons and has a strong stress. In interrogative sentences SHALL us used in the 1-st and 3-rd persons to inquire after the wish of the person addressed.

 2 Threat or warning. In this meaning it is also used in the 2-nd and 3-rd persons and with a wick stress.

 3 Promise. It is also used with the 2-nd and 3-rd persons and with a wick stress.

 WILL. Will is hardly ever a purely modal verb. It generally combines it modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.

 The modal verb will expresses volition, intention on the part of the speaker, or insistence.

 1 Volition, intention. In most cases this meaning is rendered in Russian by emphatic intonation, but sometimes the verb хотеть  is used. Very often WILL is used after conjunction IF in conditional clauses where it retains its modal meaning, that of volition.

 2 Persistence referring to the presents or to the future. It is also used in speaking about lifeless things when the speaker is annoyed at something and speaks about a thing or a phenomenon of nature as if it possessed a will of its own (there is an element of personification here). The modal verb WILL is used in polite request.

 WOULD. WOULD was originally the past tense of WILL  the same way as SHOULD was the past tense of  SHALL. But while the latter has acquired new shades of meaning, WOULD has preserved those of WILL. Thus it expresses volition, persistence referring to the past.

 1 Volition. In this meaning it is mostly used in negative sentence.

 2 Persistence. It is also used in speaking about lifeless things in the same way as WILL, but in this use WOULD is more common as WILL.

 DARE. DARE means “To have the courage (or impertinence) to do something”. In the negative it denotes the lack of courage to do something. The verb DARE as well as NEED has some peculiarities which it make different from other modal verbs. It is used both as a normal verb (taking the auxiliary DO in the interrogative and negative forms, -s in the 3-rd person singular and the to-infinitive) and as anomalous verb (without any auxiliary in its interrogative and negative forms, without –s in the 3-rd person singular, and without TO before the infinitive which follows it). DARE has two forms – DARE for the present and DARED for the past. DARE is mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences. However, we often come across I DARE SAY which has become a stock phrase and acquired a new meaning “I suppose”. DARE is used only with indefinite infinitive.

 NEED. NEED expresses necessity. It is mostly used in negative and interrogative sentences. NEED has only one tense form – only present. In the same way as DARE, NEED is used as a normal and as an anomalous verb; the latter is much more common in colloquial English. NEED is used both as the indefinite and with the perfect infinitive.  

5. НАЦІОНАЛЬНІ СИМВОЛИ / NATIONAL SYMBOLS

England:

Flag: St.Georges Cross. Plant: Rose. Color: White. Patron: St.George. Saint’s day: 23 April

The Tudor rose (sometimes called the Union Rose) is the symbol of unification of royal families.

Saint George (ca. 275/281 – 23 April 303) was, according to tradition, a Roman soldier and priest in the Guard of Diocletian, who is venerated as a Christian martyr. Killed dragon.

Wales:

Flag: red dragon (Y Ddraig Goch) of Prince Cadwalader. Plant: leek Color: red.  Patron: St. David. Saint’s day: 1 March.

The flag incorporates the Red Dragon of Cadwaladr, King of Gwynedd, along with the Tudor colours of green and white. It was used by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 after which it was carried in state to St. Paul's Cathedral. The red dragon was then included in the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh descent. It was officially recognized as the Welsh national flag in 1959.

Scotland:

Flag: St. Andrew’s Cross. Plant: Thistle. Color: Blue  Patron: St. Andrew. Saint’s day: 30 November

A thistle was the national emblem of Scotland since the reign of Alexandra III and was used on silver coins, produced by James III in 1470. There is legend that the invasion of Norwegian army was sneaking at night where was standing Scotch army camp. During this action one Norwegian stepped on Scotch Thistle, as he was barefooted that compelled him to cry out in pain, therefore warning Scotsman of presence of the Norwegian invaders.

Ireland:

Flag: Cross of St Patrick.  Plant: Shamrock.  Color: Green  Patron: St.Patrick Saint’s day: 17 March

1922–1973 Personal flag of the Governor of Northern Ireland

1953-1972 The Ulster Banner, is the flag of the former Government of Northern Ireland. It is used by the unionist community and is not internationally or officially recognised, although several sporting organisations such as FIFA and the Commonwealth Games Federation and media organisations such as ESPN currently use the flag to represent teams and athletes from Northern Ireland.

the plant was used by Saint Patrick to illustrate the doctrine of the Trinity. 

6. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE USA.

Area: 9 640 000 km2, of which:

Water – 5 % (470 131 km2)

Land – 9 158 960 km2

Forests – 25 %

The United States is a country in the Western Hemisphere. By land area, the United States is the world's third largest country, after Russia and China, with Canada fourth. It consists of forty-eight contiguous states in North America, Alaska, a peninsula which forms the northwestern most part of North America, and Hawaii, an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. There are several United States territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.

The country shares land borders with Canada (to the north) and Mexico (to the south) and maritime (water) borders with Russia, Cuba, and The Bahamas. The USA are bounded by the Pacific Ocean on the west, the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast. Alaska borders the Pacific Ocean to the south, the Bering Strait to the west, and the Arctic Ocean to the north, while Hawaii lies far to the southwest of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.