Ответы по грамматике английского

THE NOUN: The noun denotes objects, substances, living beings (people and animals), abstract notions, different phenomena. The English noun has the grammatical categories of number, case and is associated with the article. There are different classifications of the Noun. The most important are the semantic classification and the classification of nouns into countable and uncountable. I.   The semantic classification of nouns is based on their meaning, according to which they fall into different groups. A common noun is the general name of an object, a place, a person or an idea: a computer, a city, a boy, love, joy, luck. A proper noun is the name of a particular person or a geographical place. Mrs. Honey, Brian, London, the Tiber, the Alps. A common noun may be concrete, abstract or collective. A concrete noun names an object that occupies space and can be seen and touched: a flower, a CD, a banana Concrete nouns fall into class and material. A class noun refers an object to the same class of things. It can be counted. A material noun denotes substance and generally is uncountable:  a glass — glass, an iron — iron. An abstract noun names an idea, some notion: freedom, intelligence, competence. A collective noun names a group of people or things: a family, a flotilla, people, government, cast. The classification of the Noun can be presented in the following table: The noun: Common and Proper: Common: Concrete (Class and Material), Abstract, Collective. Proper: Personal and Geographical.  II. The classification of nouns into countable and uncountable based on the ability of nouns to be counted. Countable: a thing, an apple, a car. Uncountable: news, freedom, happiness.  1.   If the noun is countable it can agree with the verb in the singular and in the plural; it can take the indefinite article. The indefinite pronouns (not) many or (a) few are used. This is a great book.       —     These are great books. I've got (not) many, (a) few French books at home. 2.  If the noun is uncountable it agrees with the verb only in the singular; it can't take the indefinite article, (not) much, (a) little are used with them. It is hard work. He does much work.  
 
 

NUMBER: Countable nouns in English have two numbers — the singular and the plural. The plural can be expressed in English by: 1. Adding -s or -es to the singular; -es is added to the nouns ending in (t) ch, s, ss, sh, x or z: a wish — wishes,  a day — days, a story — stories,a life — live. 2. The change of the root vowel: a man — men a woman — women a child — children a foot — feet. 3.  Identical forms for the singular and for the plural: a deer — two deer, a sheep — ten sheep, a means — some means. Names of nationalities ending in -ese, -ss also have identical forms for the singular and for the plural: a Chinese — the Chinese a Japanese — two Japanese, a Swiss — many Swiss.                 4.  Foreign Plurals: A lot of words borrowed from Latin and Greek form their plural in modern English in the regular way, i.e., by adding -(e)s. But a few have kept their original Latin or Greek plural endings. The most common of them form the plural according to the table below: cactus – cactuses – cacti, phenomenon – phenomenons – phenomena.  5.  The plural of compound nouns: a)   Generally compounds form the plural by adding -(e)s to the second element. a grown-up — grown-ups; a boyfriend — boyfriends; But. a passer-by — passers-by; b)  Nouns ending in -in-law add the plural -s to the noun: a father-in-law — fathers-in-law, But: his/her in-laws;  с) If the first element is man or woman, both elements are made plural: a woman-driver — women-drivers. 6.  As for uncountable nouns some of them are always singular and some are plural: singular invariable nouns: information, advice, money, furniture; plural invariable nouns: clothes, jeans, trousers. It is hitting news. My jeans are denim blue.    

THE ADJECTIVE: The adjective is a part of speech which modifies the noun. Adjectives can express qualities (large, modem, quiet), physical and emotional states (cold, busy, friendly, happy), origin (American, Asian), opinions (excellent, fantastic, cool), frequency (weekly, daily, regular). According to their morphological composition adjectives can be simple (young, new, fresh), derived (careful, woody, rainy), compound (well-known, much-praised, man-made). All adjectives fall into two groups — qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote properties of a substance directly (great, calm, gold, beautiful). Relative adjectives describe properties of a substance through relation to material (woolen, wooden, golden) to place (Italian, European), to time (ancient, contemporary). When two or more adjectives come before a noun, the usual order is: Value — Size — Age — Shape — Colour — Origin — Material — Opinion — Temperature: a pretty little wooden house (value + size + material) a beautiful old red London bus (value + age + colour + origin) This word order is not compulsory. Sometimes a short adjective comes before a long one: a soft, comfortable chair; a happy, peaceful home; a tall, handsome man; a bright, cheerful smile. The adjective big generally comes before value adjectives: a big bad wolf, a big tall building, a big handsome man, a big fat woman. Adjectives are used in the sentence in the functions of an attribute or of a predicative: He always drinks cold milk. He is cold and miserable. Adjectives denoting temporary states are used only predicatively: ill, well, unwell; as well as adjectives with the prefix -a: afraid, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware (of), ashamed. She doesn't look very well today. Adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative and the superlative degree. The adjective expressing some quality without comparison is said to be in the positive degree. An equal degree is expressed with the help of the conjunctions; as ... as, not as (so) ... as in negative sentences. She is as old as I am. The comparative and the superlative degrees of comparison are formed in the synthetic, analytic and suppletive ways. The synthetic degrees of comparison are formed by adding the inflexion -er, -est (fine — finer — finest) to the adjectives having one or two syllables. The more recent trend is: happy— more happy — most happy. The analytic degrees are formed by means of «more» and «most» (difficult — more difficult — most difficult). Several adjectives form their degrees of comparison irregularly, in the suppletive way when some other words are used to build up the forms. good — better — best, bad — worse — worst, little — less — least, many/much — more — most. The following adjectives have double degrees of comparison: far: farther — farthest (with reference to distance), further — furthest (with reference to distance, as well as in figurative use «the next to come»).  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

THE NUMERAL: I.  The Numeral is a part of speech denoting number or order. Numerals may be used in the sentence in the function of: 1.  an attribute Ten people are wanted for the job. The second song was a great hit. 2.  a predicative My son is twenty and my daughter is twenty-two. 3. the subject, an object or an adverbial modifier when substantivized. Seven is a lucky number. The two left the office early. II.  Numerals fall into cardinals and ordinals. 1.  Cardinal numerals are used in counting and answer the question «How many?» She has three questions to ask. There are ten students in my class. All cardinal numerals may become substantivized and turn into nouns. The four played a game of cards. Two million citizens but millions of citizens We count: by tens, hundreds, thousands: also by the hundred, by the thousand. 2.  Ordinal numerals denote order or position and answer the question «Which?» Most of them are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix -th (sixth, seventh, etc.), except first, second, and third). Ordinal numerals which modify nouns are usually preceded by the definite article: the first term, the fourth day. The indefinite article may also be used. In such cases the meaning will be «an additional one», «one more». A third possibility occurred to me. You are like a second family to me. III. Fractional numbers In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal numeral and the denominator is an ordinal (used as a noun): two-thirds, three-sixths Decimal fractions: 1.62 = one, point six, two. IV.The spoken forms of 0: 1. nought used in mathematics: 0.7 = nought point seven .07 = point nought seven 2. zero [ zirau ] used in science, for example, in temperatures 15° С = minus fifteen degrees or fifteen degrees below zero 3. о (ou, au] used in telephone numbers: 01-500-3026 = о one five double о — three о two six nil or nothing used in scores in such games as football: 2-0 = the score was two nothing or two nil. V. 1. Books use various numbering systems, including Roman numerals: I, II, III, IV, 2.  M= 1000,1?=500, C-= 100, 1=50, 3.  Dates on monuments are also sometimes written in Roman eg. 1985 would be MCMLXXXV» where M = 1000, CM - 1000 - 100=900), L=50, XXX=30 (i,e. 3*10), and V=5. Note: a) In writing, spell out cardinal and ordinal numerals that соф be written in one or two words. Always spell out numerals thai open the sentence. There were twenty pages in the essay. Five hundred and seventy people attended the conference. (not 570...) b) Remember the punctuation marks when writing a sum of money: $ 2,123.56 = two thousand one hundred twenty three dollars and fifty six cents