Ответы по грамматике английского

The Present Simple (Indefinite) Tense: Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded. The Present Ind. is formed from the plain stem of the verb. In the third person singular it has the suffix s/es which is pronounced z after vowels and voiced consonants (plays), s after voiceless consonants (looks), iz after sibilants (places). Verbs ending in s, ss, ch, tch, x, z and o (preceded by a consonant) take the suffix es (pushes, watches). Verbs ending in y with a preceding consonant change the y into ies (study-studies). But if the y is preceded by a vowel, the suffix s is added (play-plays). The affirmative form of the Pres.Ind. is a synthetic form (I work, he works), but the interrogative and negative forms are built up by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Pres.Ind. and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to (do you work? Does he work? I don’t work). There is a special affirmative form which is used for emphasis. It is built up by means of the Pres.Ind. of the auxiliary verb to do followed by the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to (I do want to go there). The Simple Present is used: 1) to state simple facts, habitual actions in the present (I live in Moscow bur every weekend I go to the country.); 2) to state laws of nature, universal truths, in proverbs and sayings (The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.); 3) to denote a succession of actions going on at the moment of speaking (She comes in, takes off her coat, flings it on the chair and walks over to the window.); 4) in subordinate clauses of time, condition and concession instead of the Simple Future after the conjunctions when, till, until, as soon as, before, after, if, unless, in case, on condition that, provided, even if (I’ll see him before I go to bed), in object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when and if the Simple Future is used (I don’t know when she will come.); 5) to express an action going on at the moment of speaking with non-progressive verbs like believe, belong, understand, need, realize, remember, prefer (I remember her well.); 6) with the verbs to forget, to hear, to be told, to denote past actions (I hear you are leaving for Spain.). The signals: always, as a rule, occasionally, often, ever, every day, generally, never, regularly, seldom, sometimes, usually. 

The Present Progressive Tense: It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Simple Present and Participle I of the notional verb (He is working). The same auxiliary verb is used in the interrogative and the negative forms (Are you working?). The ing-form is built up by adding the suffix ing to the stem of the verb (speak-speaking). A mute e at the end of the verb is dropped before the suffix ing (make-making). A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed er (cut-cutting, prefer-preferring). A final l is always doubled in British English (travel-travelling). A final y is preserved no matter what sound it is preceded by (stay-staying). A final ie changes into y (lie-lying). The Present Progressive is used to express: 1) an action going on at the moment of speaking: What are you doing? I am cleaning these silver spoons. Note: Stative non-progressive verbs denoting physical perceptions, emotions, mental abilities are not usually used in the Present Progressive. The Simple Present is used instead: Do you see that boy? Do you recognize me? a)  some stative verbs can be used in the progressive form when they change their meaning. For example, the verb to be in the Present Progressive expresses certain state or quality peculiar for the person at the given moment (We are being fools to go there by ourselves!). b)  the verbs of sense and mental perception (see, hear, understand) are used to express surprise, doubt, disbelief (especially in questions) (I can't believe what I am seeing!). 2) an action going on at the present period of time: Are you writing a new book? 3) actions generally characterising the person denoted by the subject, bringing out the person's typical traits. In such sentences the adverbials always or constantly are obligatory: You're always showing off! 4) actions which will take place in the near future due to one's previous decision. The action is regarded as something definitely settled (mostly verbs of motion such as to move, to come, to go, to leave, to return, to start are used): He's returning on Monday. The Present Progressive of the verb to go + infinitive is commonly used to denote future fulfillment of the present situation: I'm going to study Italian. 5) an action in progress which is simultaneous with some other action or state denoted by the verb in the Simple Present. It is used in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, while, as long as, if, in case, unless (I never talk when I am working.). 
 
 
 

The Present Perfect Tense: It is analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Simple Present and Participle II of the notional verb: I have worked. Have you worked? It is used in present time contexts (conversations, newspaper, letters).  It is not found in narration where reference is usually made to past events. It may be resultative (exclusive) and durative (inclusive). The Present Perfect Resultative is used to denote a completed action connected with the present through its result: You can't see her, she has gone home.  The Present Perfect may be found with certain adverbs of indefinite time and frequency such as ever, just, already, before, never, not... yet, lately, of late, so far: Have you heard of him lately? The Present Perfect is possible with adverbial modifiers of time that denote a period of time which is not over yet, e.g. today, this morning, this week, this month, this year. But if the period is over, the Simple Past is used. Did you read the article in «The Times» this morning? (It is no longer morning) — No, I haven't had time to look at the paper today. (today is not over yet). In special questions introduced by where, how, who, what, why, what... for both the Present Perfect and the Past Simple are possible. In «when»-questions only the Simple Past is used. When did you go there? The Present Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions when, before, as soon as, till and until to stress the completion of the action of the subordinate clause before the action of the principal one. We'll see about it when you've had your tea. The Present Perfect Durative (Inclusive). 1. It expresses an action which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it. This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Present Perfect Progressive. However the Present Perfect Durative is found with verbs that cannot be used in the progressive form. The whole period of the duration of the action may be marked by prepositional phrases with for. The starting point of the action is indicated by the adverb since. I've been here ever since I came to Paris. We've known this man for years. The Present Perfect Durative is preferred to Present Perfect Progressive in negative sentences when it is the action itself that is completely negated (the Inclusive Present Perfect Tense). I haven't driven for a long time. It may also express an action that began in the past, continued for some time and has just stopped (the Present Perfect Resultative). We haven't seen each other for years! When the period of duration is expressed by a prepositional phrase with for: If the period of duration belongs to the past, the Past Indefinite should be used. If the period of duration comes close to the moment of speaking or includes it, the Present Perfect is used. «I have lived like this for two years,» he said, «and I can't stand it any more.» Yesterday he waited for her for two hours but she didn't turn up. 

The Past Simple Tense: It is a synthetic form, built up by a change in the word itself. I worked. But the interrogative and the negative forms are built up by means of the auxiliary verb to do in the Simple Past and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to. Did they work? They did not work. The Simple Past is used to express: 1. a single action completed in the past and in no way connected with the present. He left yesterday. They married in 1990. The Simple Past, never the Present Perfect, is used in questions beginning with when, because when implies a certain, moment in the past. The answer can be either in the Simple Past or in the Present Perfect, depending on the situation: When did you see him? — I saw him two days ago. - I have just seen him. 2.  a succession of actions in narration to describe the development of events. I went up the stairs. I bathed. I changed. Then I went downstairs and cooked and served dinner for three. Sometimes you can come across the cases of the so called «historic present», when in past-time contexts present tenses are used to make the narration more vivid. Just imagine what happened to me yesterday! I came into the kitchen and what do you think I see? My cat is sitting on the table and eating the fish. And she looks so innocent that I have no heart to say anything. 3.  an action which occupied a whole period of time which is now over. The period of time is usually indicated in the sentence by means of adverbial phrases with the preposition for or during. I walked in the park for twenty minutes yesterday. We stayed in the garden for a long time. 4.  facts; habitual, recurrent actions in the past. Every day we got up at seven and went to bed at eleven. In English there are special means of expressing a permanent recurrent action in the past. They are: used to + infinitive and would + infinitive. We used to play in the garden and Mother would make the cheese cakes for lunch. 
 
 
 

The Present Perfect Progressive: It is analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Present Perfect and the ing-form of the notional verb (Participle I). I have been working. Have you been working? We have not been working. The Present Perfect Progressive is used for actions or situations that started at some time in the past, were happening up to the moment of speaking and may or may not be completed. This form can be used with both durative and resultative verbs, and either the starting point of the action or the period during which it has been in progress is usually specified (since, for, lately, recently, etc.): Since 1982 they have been living in the Lake District. They are not going to move to any other place. It is often used in How long... and Since when... questions: How long have you been reading this book? Since when has he been learning to skate? The Present Perfect Progressive is used for actions repeated a number of times within a limited period which ends at (or includes) the moment of speaking: He has been reading too many horror books recently. The Present Perfect Progressive is used for continuous past actions that have produced some side effect on the current situation. You are looking very tired. It seems you have been working hard these days. In subordinate clauses of time and condition the present perfect progressive is used for actions or situations in progress before a certain moment in the future: He will be accustomed to the surroundings after he has been staying here a couple of weeks. With durative verbs (live, sit, lie, rain, wait, work, etc.) both the present perfect and the present perfect progressive forms can be used when a period of time is indicated in the sentence. I have worked in the bank for two years. I have been working in the bank for two years. The Present Perfect is used for more permanent situations that are not changing in time: John has always lived in London. The Present Perfect Progressive emphasizes the-continuity of an action. With (non-)resultative verbs it brings in the idea of incompleteness, while the present perfect shows that the action has been finished by the moment of speaking. He has been writing since 12. He has written 10 letters today. The Present Perfect Progressive focuses on the previous duration of the action; The Present Progressive is used for temporary situations which are developing at the present moment. I have been translating this article for three hours. I am translating an article at the moment. 

The Past Progressive Tense: It is analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Simple Past and Participle I of the notional verb. I was working. Were you working? We were not working. The Past Progressive is used in the following cases: 1) to express an action which was going on at a given moment in the past. In some cases, there is no indication of a given past moment. It is implied in the situation. Sometimes it is indicated with the help of another action in the Simple Past, or by stating the precise time: at the moment, now, etc. You were sleeping when I left. At that very moment she was phoning the police. 2) to express an action going on at a given period of time in the past. The indication of the past period of time is understood from the context or is given in the sentence.  What were you doing in Paris? I was trying to find a publisher for my new book for half a year. 3) to express an action generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject, bringing out his (her) typical traits. Often, always, constantly are found in such cases in the sentence. Such sentences are emotionally coloured. She was constantly suffering from a cut or a burn. 4) with verbs which are not usually used in the progressive form when they change their meaning and are used to characterize the person's unusual behavior at the given past moment. He was being kind to us. 5) in the subordinate clause of a complex sentence introduced by the conjunction while. (The Simple Past can be used in these clauses as well). The Simple Past is normally used in the principal clause. While he stood there he heard the telephone ring. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The Past Perfect Tense: It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Simple Past and Participle II of the notional verb. I had worked. Had you worked? They hadn’t come. The Past Perfect is mainly found in narration and in past-time contexts. 1. The Past Perfect is used to express an action completed before a given past moment. The time of the action may be indicated by a phrase or by another past action. She was no fool. She had read much in several languages, and she could talk of the books she had read with good sense. 2.  The Past Perfect serves to express an action which began before a given past moment and continues into it or up to it. This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Past Perfect Progressive. The Past Perfect is found with the verbs not used in the progressive tense forms. This use is associated with certain time indications: either a whole period of duration of the action is indicated (for) or its starting point (since). He mentioned that he had not played tennis for three years. In clauses of time introduced by since the Simple Past is commonly used, though the Past Perfect is also possible. 3. The Past Perfect is often used in combination with the Past Progressive when both actions are viewed from the same past moment. One action is completed before that past implied moment while the other is still in progress. She had done the work and was watching TV. 4.   The Past Perfect is found in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions scarcely... when, hardly... when, neatly... when, no sooner... than. The action of the subordinate clause takes place when the action of the principal clause is hardly completed yet. Such sentences are emphatic in meaning and the word order in them is inverted. Hardly had I gone a hundred yards when I noticed a car behind me.  No sooner had she opened the door than she saw a stranger.  

The Past Perfect Progressive Tense: It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Past Perfect and Participle I of the notional verb. I had been working. Had you been working? We had not been working. The Past Perfect Progressive serves to express: 1.  an action which began before a given past moment and continued into it or up to it (the inclusive or the durative type). She suddenly realized that it was now completely dark and that she had been walking for a long time. 2.  an action that was in progress just before a given past moment and it affects the past situation in some way. It was the letter she had been expecting. 3.  parallel actions in the principal and in the subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions while and since and such words as long as, all time, during the time. Our friendship had been growing all the time we had been working on the project. The Simple Future Tense It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to. I shall see him tomorrow. In present-day English there is a tendency to use will for all the persons. The difference in the use of shall and will disappears altogether in spoken English where the contracted form 'll is used with all the persons. I'll see him tomorrow. They'll see him soon. The auxiliary verbs shall and will are also used to build up the interrogative and the negative forms. Shall we see you tomorrow? Will they see him next week? The Simple Future is used only in present-time contexts to express: 1.  a single action that will be completed in the future: It will be cold in the evening. 2.  an action occupying a whole period of time in the future: I hope you'll live for many years. 3.  recurrent actions in the future: We shall meet and talk and make plans from time to time. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The Future Progressive Tense: It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Simple Future and Participle I of the notional verb. I shall be seeing him often now. We shall be visiting them very soon. Shall I be seeing him often now? Shall we be visiting them very soon? We shall not be visiting them very soon. The Future Progressive is used in the following cases: 1. It serves to express an action in progress at a definite future moment. The given future moment at which the action takes place is usually indicated by an adverbial modifier or is clear from the context or situation. It will be too late. He will be sleeping. 2. The Future Progressive is used to express an anticipated (a matter-of-course) action which is supposed to take place in the future in the normal, natural course of events. I feel I shall be asking you the same question tomorrow. Even stative verbs can be used in this meaning. She says she'll be seeing you tomorrow. 3. In interrogative sentences, the Future Progressive is a polite way of asking about somebody’s plans. Will you be coming tomorrow? The Future Perfect Tense: It is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Simple Future and Participle II of the notional verb. I shall have read the book by that time. Will she have read the book by that time? She will not have read the book by that time. The Future Perfect is used to express an action completed before a given future moment which is usually indicated by an adverbial modifier of time. You will have got my telegram before this letter reaches you. The Future Perfect Progressive : All the forms of the Future Perfect Progressive are analytical. They are formed with the Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb. I shall have been speaking for two hours before you come. Their interrogative and negative forms are built up in the usual way. It denotes actions which began before a certain moment of time in the future and go on up to that moment or into it. I shall have been living here for five years next February. 

Other Ways of Expressing Future Be going to: like the simple future, the structure be going + to-infinitive is often used with a pure future meaning: I cannot see how they are going to pay all of us. The verb phrase be going + to-infinitive is also used to describe a decision or intention on the part of the subject to do something: If you are going to improve your fitness, you will almost certainly need to increase your exercise level. Be going to may be used to express what appears likely or inevitable: It's going to be difficult to persuade him to change his mind. The Simple Present is used for future actions that are regarded as part of a fixed timetable without an element of personal agreement, intention or planning: The examination begins at 7 tomorrow. It is also used with future reference in adverbial clauses of time and condition. He will tell you when he has the necessary information. (adverbial clause of time) He will tell you when he will have the necessary information. (object clause) The Present Progressive indicates that a future action or event is already decided, pre-arranged, or agreed upon: I'm meeting him tonight. Be due to: The structure be due + to-infinitive expresses something that is expected to happen at a particular time in future according to some timetable or schedule: The plane is due to land at 3. Be about to: The structure be about + to-infinitive indicates that something is going to happen in very near future: The taxi is here and we are about to go.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The Sequence of Tenses: If the verb in the principal clause is in one of the present or future tenses the verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense form required by the situation. The Sequence of Tenses is used when someone's words are reported. The rules of the Sequence of Tenses are mainly observed in subordinate object, subject, predicative, appositive clauses, and in clauses of purpose. After the past tense forms in the principal clause we find relative use of tense forms in the subordinate clauses, a shift of tenses into the past. There are two possible cases: 1. The rules of the sequence of tenses are compulsory when the action of the subordinate clause is viewed from the past. a)  If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause, the Past Simple or the Past Progressive is used in the object clause no matter which past tense form is found in the principal clause. She didn't know where she was. b)  If the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Progressive is used in the subordinate clause no matter which past tense is found in the principal clause. I knew you had left the city. c)  If the action of the subordinate clause refers to the future, the Future-in-the Past (Simple or Progressive) or one of the other means of expressing a future action is used. We hoped she would soon be better. 2. The rules of the sequence of tenses are optional when reference is made to the actual present time or the actual future time. This use is found in dialogues, newspapers and radio reports. He said he doesn't ever want to see you. The rules of the Sequence of Tenses are not observed in some quite logical cases: 1.  when the verb of the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth or facts that still hold true. Our Geography teacher told us at the last lesson that there aren't any unknown islands left on the earth. 2.  with the modal verbs must, should, ought to, the rules of the Sequence of Tenses are not observed either. Two people advised me that I ought to see a doctor. 3.  if we are reporting an immediate future event, we can leave the verbs shall, will in the present: Don't leave. She said she will make some coffee. 4.  in reporting a narration the past tense does not change. Also, if there is a concrete past date. He said that he was born in Kiev and then the family moved to Minsk. 5. the Simple Past in subordinate clauses of time (introduced by the conjunctions when and since) is not changed according to the rules of the Sequence of Tenses into the Past Perfect Tense. She said that when she left school, he was already studying at University. 6.  the Past Continuous doesn't undergo any changes, it stays as it is: He remarked: «When I came in she was singing.» He remarked that when he came in she was singing.