Ответы по грамматике английского

The Passive Voice: Voice is a grammatical category of the verb denoting the relationship between the action expressed by the verb and the person/non-person denoted by the subject of the sentence. The Passive Voice is used to show that the subject of the sentence is not the agent of the action expressed by the verb but, quite conversely, is acted upon, undergoes the action. The telegram had been delivered on time. It is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb. the Simple Present — is (am, are) done; the Simple Past — was (were) done ; the Simple Future — will (shall) be done; the Present Perfect — has (have) been done; the Past Perfect — had been done; the Future Perfect — Will (shall) have been done; the Present Progressive — is (am, are ) being done; the Past Progressive — was (were) being done. The Passive Voice doesn't have the Future Progressive, the Future Progressive in the Past and all the Perfect Progressive forms. When was it done? Has the work been done? Where is the centre being built? The work was not done yesterday. The file hasn't been opened yet.

The Passive Voice in English is found with different types of verbs (mostly transitive). 1.  There are a number of verbs in English which take two objects — a direct and an indirect object. These verbs may have two passive constructions. The most frequently used verbs of this kind are: to tell, to give, to offer, to show, to pay, to live, to promise, to send, to teach, to allow, to ask, to answer, to forgive, to invite, to advise and a few others. A very good job was offered to me. He was offered a well-paid job. 2.   There are a great number of verbs in English that require a prepositional object. These verbs may also be used in the Passive. The preposition retains its place after the verb. This construction may be called the Prepositional Passive. He is well spoken of as a man of science. The doctor was sent for half an hour ago. 3.  The Prepositional Passive is not used with verbs which take two objects, direct and prepositional. Here belong such verbs as to explain (something to somebody), to point out, to announce, to dictate, to describe, to mention, to repeat, to suggest, to propose. The difficulty was explained to her. The mistake was pointed out to us. The active forms of the verbs sell, wash, peel, crease, wear, bake, burn are used though the meanings are passive: Detective stories sell well. There is a certain group of transitive verbs which are not used in the passive voice. They are: to seem, to lack, to become, to fit, to suit, to resemble. These verbs don't denote actions or processes, but states. John resembles his father. He seems to know all. 

Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive: Object: The function of object is very common for the infinitive. The infinitive 1) used directly after verbs; 2) with an object between it and the verb; 3) used after predicative adjectives; 4) preceded by a wh-word; 5) introduced by it. 1. Verbs followed directly by the infinitive: He chose to pay no attention to what she said. I tend to go to bed rather late. In sentences like I struggled to stay awake, She did not live to see the end of the war the infinitive performs another function. Most of these verbs can be used with a passive infinitive: She refused to be paid a lower salary. He deserves to be promoted. The verbs claim, pretend, tend are quite often used with a perfect infinitive: He claimed to have been there. He pretended to have heard nothing. 2. Verbs followed by an object + the infinitive: We asked them to see him. I encouraged her to tell the truth. She reminded me to lock the door. 3. The infinitive is widely used as the object of the following predicative adjectives: glad, happy, lucky, surprised, sorry, curious, afraid: I am curious to know the news. He is afraid to go there. The perfect infinitive is sometimes used here to emphasize that the event preceded the emotional state: I was happy to have been invited. 4. We can often use a full infinitive after a wh-word. I do not know how to open the door. He asked me which bus to take. 5. We can use the verbs consider, think, find, presume, believe, hold, judge and make with the pronoun it followed by an adjective or noun and a full infinitive: He thought it his duty to help them. He made it a rule to get up at seven o'clock. 6. With the verbs come, go and find we can use either the infinitive or participle I depending on what we want to express. Attribute: The infinitive as an attribute can modify nouns, indefinite and negative pronouns, ordinal numerals and the substantivized adjective last: She went to buy something to eat. He was the last to arrive. She was the first to help me. Sometimes the infinitive in this function expresses the idea of necessity, possibility or arrangement. In this case, the infinitive is quite often passive: He is a man to rely on. (= who can be relied on)          
 
 
 
 

The Passive Voice of the Verbals. Modal verbs + the Passive Voice Infinitive. Like the finite forms of the verb, the verbals (the infinitive, the gerund, the participle I) may be used in the passive voice. Nobody likes to be laughed at. Modal verbs and modal expressions commonly precede the passive voice infinitive: He must be talked to about it. Adverbs of Manner in Passive Sentences. Adverbs of manner stand immediately in pre- or postposition to the past participle: The work was well done or The work was done well. The Use of by and with + Object After a Passive Verb. Around 85 percent of sentences with the passive voice do not have an explicit agent. To mention the agent is only necessary when the speaker/writer wishes to say (or the hearer has to know) who or what is responsible for the event. By is used to introduce the active agent — the person or thing or driving force that does the action): He was killed by a heavy stone. (=A stone fell and killed him.) With is used when talking about an instrument which helps the agent to do an action: He was killed with a heavy stone. (= Somebody used a stone to kill him.) A few transitive verbs refer to states rather than actions and point to what is used for filling, covering or containing. The streets are crowded with people. There are verbs referring to states which are used with by in the passive: conceal, illuminate, occupy, exceed, inhabit, overshadow: She was completely overshadowed by a more talkative speaker. Some verbs can be used with either by or with to refer to states: adorn, cover, overrun, besiege, encircle + by / with: In spring trees are covered with blossom. Get-Passive Form. In informal style the verb get is fairly frequently used instead of the auxiliary verb be to form the passive voice (The terrorist got arrested (was arrested) with a bomb in his hands). Get + participle II may be used in two cases only: 1) when talking about things that are done suddenly, unexpectedly or by accident: The picture got damaged when we were moving; 2) when talking about things which we do to ourselves: We got married in June. Get is not a true auxiliary verb (unlike be), that is why there is a structural difference between be and get passive forms in questions and negative sentences in the simple present and past tenses. Do must function as an auxiliary for get: Did the picture get damaged when they were moving? Auxiliary verbs be and have are used to form progressive and perfect groups of tenses: We are getting married in the  morning. My wallet has got stolen.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The Passive with Verbs of Saying and Believing. When the source of the reported information is not known/important, or when it seems necessary to be cautious about disclosing it, the following types of passive constructions are used with the verbs of saying and believing. It + passive + that-clause: The following verbs are often used in this construction: agree, allege, arrange, assume, believe, consider, decide, declare, discover, expect, fear, feel, find, hope, know, presume, prove, report, say, suggest, suppose, think, understand: It is said that he is rich. Subject+passive + to-infinitive: The following verbs are regularly used with this construction: allege, believe, consider, declare, know, recognize, report, say, tell, suppose, think, understand: He is said to be rich. There + passive + to be + noun phrase: This construction is used to report the existence of something and is not very common for the colloquial English: There is said to be a lot of money in his pockets. Only a limited selection of verbs are used in this pattern: acknowledge, allege, believe, consider, fear, feel, know, presume, report, say, suppose, think, understand. Be + participle II = compound nominal predicate (statal passive) can denote an action and be a simple verbal predicate expressed by the passive voice (further referred to as actional passive): They were married last Sunday. It can also denote a state and then it is a compound nominal predicate consisting of a link verb be and a predicative expressed by participle II (further, for the sake of convenience, referred to as statal passive): They have already been long married. Actional Passive: Get passive form is used: We got married. The agent of the action is mentioned: The statue was broken by some vandals. There is a succession of actions: We were married and then, only a few months later, divorced. The verb is used in progressive or in perfect exclusive tenses: They have just been married. There is an adverbial of place, frequency, time: We were married in church. Statal Passive: The verb is used in the perfect inclusive tense: They have long been married. There is a homogeneous predicative: We were married and happy. When participle II denotes a state of mind. By/with/at/about + object in this case denotes the cause of the state: We were astonished by / at this news.  

Mood and Modality: Modality is a grammatical category indicating that the sentence is to be interpreted as denoting a state of affairs which is real or unreal, possible or necessary, desirable or forbidden, obligatory or permitted, etc. It is expressed by means of a number of moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive) modal verbs or modal words (maybe, sure, perhaps). Mood shows the relation between the action expressed by the predicate verb and reality. This relation is established by the speaker. The category of mood is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in presenting the event described as a real fact, a problematic action or as something unreal that does not exist. The indicative mood is used to represent an action or state as a real fact. Barbara lives in London. The Imperative mood represents an action or state as desirable and expresses a request or a command. Turn off this terrible music! The imperative mood can be expressed by both synthetic and analytical forms. The synthetic imperative refers to the 2^nd person singular and plural and is expressed by the basic form of the verb (Go!). The negative form requires the auxiliary do (Don't go!); do can also be used emphatically: Do be quiet! To give even more expression to an order or request addressed to the 2nd pers. sg., you may be included into the sentence: You better watch your step! The analytical imperative requires let with the 3rd person singular and 1st/3rd person plural: Let her /us /them do it. Corresponding negative commands are formed with don't or let's not: Don't let's go there. Let's not go there. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: It is used to express an action that is unreal: If I had the key, we could go inside.; or desirable (the subjunctive mood denotes wish, often unreal, rather than a command or request): I wish I were sixteen again. GRAMMATICAL FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: To express the different meanings rendered by the subjunctive mood, a variety of verb forms are used, both synthetic and analytical. None of these forms distinguishes person or number. Synthetic Forms: 1. The present subjunctive corresponds to the bare infinitive for all persons: I insist that he come here at once! 2. The past subjunctive is limited to the verb were: He behaved as if he were drunk. Were remains in the plural, where it is impossible to distinguish between the indicative and the subjunctive in past time contexts: They behaved as if they were drunk. The only expressions making regular use of the past subjunctive, are I wish I were... and as it were, the former one sometimes alternating with I wish I was. Analytical Forms:  it is used to denote a form consisting of one or more primary auxiliaries and a notional verb and will be applied below to forms identical to analytical tense forms in the indicative: They looked as if they were fighting for their lives (past progressive); If you had come, we would have had a good time (past perfect); She looked as if she had been crying (past perfect progressive). The following sentences are also possible: He looks as if he was / were fighting for his life. Sometimes combinations of the secondary auxiliary verbs should, would, may, might, could with various forms of the infinitive of a notional verb are also regarded as analytical subjunctive forms: She opened the window so that we might have some fresh air. This group of auxiliary verbs has its origin in modal verbs and retains much of the original modal meaning. Therefore it is often hard to distinguish between true modal verbs (modal auxiliaries) and what some authors refer to as "mood auxiliaries": She opened the window so that we could have some fresh air. TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: In simple sentences the subjunctive mood expresses actions referring to the present, past, or future, the tense distinctions are absolute: If only she were here, (present) If only I hadn't said it! (past) May you be happy! (future) In complex sentences they do not usually express absolute time. Subjunctive mood forms identical to the past indefinite and past continuous, tend to denote an action/state simultaneous with that of the main clause: I wish I knew her name! Forms identical to the past perfect express priority: Jim looks as if he had seen a ghost. The perfect infinitive after should, would also expresses a prior action: It is amazing that Kate should have said it. The present subjunctive and forms with should, would, may, might, can, could, shall generally denote actions occurring later than the actions in the main clause: Suddenly I wished she would stop smiling. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Uses of the Present Subjunctive: 1. Synthetic forms of the present subjunctive are used in a number of set phrases expressing wish, oaths and swearing, etc., most of which are characteristic of archaic style ("formulaic" subjunctive): Wish: Be it so!/So be it! —Да будет так. Be it as you wish. — Будь по-вашему. Long live!—Да здравствует! God /Lord /Heaven help smb! God/The Lord forgive smb! God / Heaven forbid! — Боже упаси! God save us! — Храни нас Бог! Swearing and threats: God damn (it)! Damn! Woe be to you if... — Горе тебе, если... Others: Manners be hanged!—Долой приличия! Suffice it to say that... —Достаточно сказать, что... Come what may... — Что бы ни случилось... If truth be known... —По правде говоря... 2. Occasionally, depending on register or dialect, the present subjunctive may be used in that-clauses to express desirability ("mandative" subjunctive): I suggest that we go home. In colloquial AmE desirability is generally expressed by present subjunctive forms: I insist that Andy stay at home, while in BrE the present subjunctive is characteristic of official language: I move that the treaty be ratified. The modal verb should + infinitive is used in that-clauses in similar circumstances to express demand, recommendation, suggestion: I suggest that the decision should be adopted. (object clauses) It is necessary that we/he should follow the rules. (subject clauses) My proposal is that the ceremony should begin at midday. (predicative clauses) We agreed with his idea that the argument should be put an end to. (attributive clauses) 3. A common way of expressing purpose is with the help of the infinitive, but when the two actions have different subjects, clauses of purpose are used introduced by so that, so, in order that. The analytical forms employ the modal auxiliaries may/might, can/could, should: She opened the door so that we might/could see the stairs. I opened my umbrella so that she shouldn't get wet. 4. Synthetic forms of the present subjunctive are used in some clauses of concession: Whatever be your reasons... Occasional use of the present subjunctive form of the verb after the conjunctions ever and whether is regarded archaic: Everyone has the right to live, whether he be rich or poor. In official style and in several set colloquial expressions the verb that follows these conjunctions may be omitted: Whatever his reasons, I won't believe him. Everyone has the right to live, whether rich or poor. When the clause of concession denotes a real fact, the indicative mood is used: Though /although you are tired, you have to go on.

No matter how tired you are, you have to go on.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Uses of the Past Subjunctive: 1. Synthetic forms of the past subjunctive are used in clauses of condition to express unreal condition: I'd feel safer if I owned this house. 2. They can also be used in clauses of comparison and predicative clauses to express unreal comparison: I feel as if I were young again. Unreal comparison is expressed in a variety of subordinate clauses introduced by as if, as though. In adverbial clauses of comparison or manner, forms are used that are identical to the simple past or past progressive to denote comparison with simultaneous actions /states: He keeps smiling as if he knew some secret. Rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed: He kept smiling as if he knew some secret. The verb be, used independently or as part of the past continuous tense form, is often were for all persons: He looked around as though he were afraid of something. Yet in contemporary English was for singular is becoming increasingly popular: He is eating greedily as if he was terribly hungry. Both was and were express unreality rather than a reference to the past: He is eating greedily as if he was/were terribly hungry. Therefore the "genuine" past subjunctive is only recognizable in the following two cases: 1) when were is used with the subject in the singular; 2) when was /were is used in a subordinate clause, while the verb in the main clause is in the present tense. To denote priority, analytical forms are used that are identical to the past perfect or the past perfect progressive indicative: He was eating greedily as if he hadn't seen food for weeks. When the verb in the main clause is in the present tense, It becomes obvious that the past perfect forms have the meaning of both priority and unreality: He behaves as if nothing had happened. If comparison refers to the future, the auxiliary would is used: She gave me an angry look as if she would attack me that very moment. The above examples illustrate the use of the subjunctive mood to express unreal comparison: He walked slowly as if he were carrying a heavy load. (He was not carrying a heavy load.) Unreal comparison can also be expressed in predicative clauses following the verbs feel, look, sound: I feel as if I were young again. She looked as though something terrible had happened. Similar meaning is rendered by subject clauses introduced by it + be, seem, look, feel: It was as if the world were going to pieces. 3. The past subjunctive in object clauses serves to express unreal wish: I wish I were a bird! The past synthetic and analytical subjunctives are used in object clauses after wish or would rather: I wish I were /was you. (simultaneous action) I wish she had not done it. (priority) I wish you would/could/might stay a little longer. (future) The subjunctive mood used after would rather generally denotes unreal wish referring to the moment of speech: I'd rather you didn't comment on my words. In isolated clauses of condition introduced by If only both synthetic and analytical forms of the subjunctive can refer to the unreal present, past, or future: If only she were here! In attributive clauses after It's (high/about) time the past subjunctive is used: It's about time we went. This expression is believed to be somewhat less straightforward than the one with the structures should + infinitive or for + infinitive (It's time for us to go / It is time that we should go) and may be used for politeness' sake. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Verbs: The Verb is a part of speech which denotes a process or a state. According to their meanings and functions in the sentence verbs are classified into notional and structural. Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independent function in the sentence. We live in Moscow and love our city.  Structural verbs cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence — they are always closely connected with some other words, forming a compound predicate (verbal or nominal). Modal verbs, link verbs, and auxiliary verbs belong to structural verbs. A modal verb is always accompanied by an infinitive — together they form a modal predicate. You must join us. I can do it. A link-verb is followed by a predicative thus forming a nominal predicate. He was a fine mechanic. She seemed quite happy. An auxiliary verb is devoid of any lexical meaning. These verbs are: to do, to be, to have, shall, will, should, would. Combined with a notional verb they serve to build up analytical forms. We had seen the play before. Do you enjoy dancing? Polysemantic verbs have, do, be may be notional as well as structural words. He has three children. I had to give up smoking. All English verbs fall into two groups: regular and irregular verbs. The regular verbs constitute the largest group. The Simple Past and Participle II of these verbs are formed by means of the suffix -ed added to the stem of the verb: live — lived — lived. The irregular verbs form their Simple Past and Participle II according to some fixed traditional patterns: wear — wore — worn; leave — left — left. There are four basic verb-forms in English. The Infinitive — work, rise; the Simple Past — worked, rose ;        Participle II - worked, risen;        Participle I — working, rising.  The forms of the verb may be of two different kinds — synthetic and analytical. Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself: I find, I found. I came, saw and won. Analytical forms consist of two or more components. He has done his duty. You are being difficult today. The English verb has finite (complete) and non-finite (incomplete) forms. The verb in its finite form possesses the morphological categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. Its syntactical function is that of the predicate of the sentence. The non-finite forms (also called Verbals) are the Infinitive, the Gerund, Participle I and Participle II. Verbals do not function as true verbs. Their syntactical function in the sentence may be different because verbals can be used as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. They can not have any morphological categories, and can not function as the predicate of the sentence, only as part of it. The English verb has the grammatical category of tense, aspect, voice and mood. Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in referring the events, or states to the present, past or future. Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is performed. It is presented in English by the opposition of the continuous aspect and the common aspect. Continuous Aspect: is speaking, was speaking, will be speaking, has been speaking; Common Aspect: speaks, spoke, will speak, has spoken. Voice is the form of the verb which shows the relation between the action and its subject. There are two voices in English: the active voice and the passive voice. The verb in the active voice shows that the subject is the doer of the action; the verb in the passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon. Mood is the form of the verb which shows in what relation to reality is the action expressed by the speaker. The category of mood is made up by a set of forms presenting the events as real facts, problematic actions or as something absolutely unreal. Accordingly there are direct and indirect moods in English. The Direct Moods are the Indicative Mood and the Imperative Mood. 1.  The Indicative Mood represents actions as real facts. We are students of the English department. 2.  The Imperative Mood expresses commands and requests. Come over there. Relax!