Ответы по грамматике английского

The Infinitive: Forms: It is a plain verb stem which is usually preceded by the unstressed particle to.  Forms of the Infinitive: a) the simple infinitive: (to) write; b) the progressive: (to) be writing; c) the perfect: (to) have written; d) the perfect progressive: (to) have been writing; e) the simple passive: (to) be written; f) the perfect passive: (to) have been written. The simple infinitive and the simple infinitive passive express an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb. It can refer to the present, past or future: He is sure to know that. He was too tired to speak. He will be too tired to speak tomorrow. He was to be found nowhere. The progressive infinitive shows that the action is in progress; it is viewed as incomplete at a certain time-point: He appeared to be reading. There are some verbs which are not normally used in the progressive forms; they do not have the progressive infinitive form either. Instead, the simple infinitive is used. He appeared to be watching us. The perfect infinitive and the perfect infinitive passive describe an action that precedes the action expressed by the finite verb. He was only too happy to speak to her. He was happy to have spoken to her. The perfect infinitive is widely used with modal verbs to denote unrealized actions in the past (I could have bought it) or to voice criticism (You should have done it).  The perfect progressive infinitive indicates that an action in progress began some time before the action expressed by the finite verb took place: He admitted to have been looking through the programme. The forms can be used in full, then we have the -called full infinitive: He was happy to learn the news. However, to avoid repetition the infinitive can be omitted in a sentence leaving behind only the particle to. This "elliptical form" of the infinitive is used when its meaning is understood from the context: They advised me to refuse, but I preferred not to. The infinitive is sometimes used without the particle to. In this it is called the bare infinitive which is used after the following verbs and phrases: 1. Auxiliary verb do: I did not say that... 2. Modal verbs (can, could, shall, should, may, might, will, would, must): You must be tired. 3.  The verb dare: How dare she talk back! Dare he refuse? — No, he dare not refuse. He may dare to propose to her some day. 4. The verb need: Need she go now? She need not make the choice herself. When need is used with an auxiliary or affirmatively, it invariably takes the full infinitive: Does she need to go? I need to speak to them. 5. The verb help: I helped her (to) carry the heavy suitcase. Let go (of) the rope! Live and let live. 6. Know: I have never known him (to) say a thing like that. 7. The verb let is always used with the bare infinitive, which usually comes after an object: Let him swim in this river. 8. The causative verb make in the active takes the bare infinitive: She made me get up early. Make in the passive takes the full infinitive: I was made to get up early. 9. The verb have takes the bare infinitive to mean "to persuade" or "to order": I will have them come in a moment. 10. The verbs feel, hear, see, etc.: I heard them come. When see and hear are used in the passive, they take the full infinitive: He was seen to enter the office building. 11. The expression why not is used with the bare infinitive to make suggestions and invitations: Why not go to the cinema tonight? 12. The bare infinitive is used after the expressions would rather, would sooner or had better: I'd rather not say. I'd rather walk than go by bus. 13. The bare infinitive follows the conjunction but (= except) when it goes with do (+ nothing, anything, everything): There is nothing to do but tell the truth. My cat does everything but speak. 14. The infinitive without to is used after the expressions cannot but and can't help but: It cannot but have some effect on the future developments. I can but try to do it. 15. The bare infinitive is optional in phrases with all and only: All you have to do is (to) add water. The only thing we can do is (to) send a fax. 16. The combination rather than is followed by the bare infinitive: Rather than waste time doing it yourself, why don't you call a plumber? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The Objective Infinitive Construction: The infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In a sentence, this construction invariably assumes the function of complex object. The OIC is used after the following groups of verbs: 1.  Verbs of three senses: feel, hear, listen to, notice, overhear, see, watch, etc. These verbs admit only of the infinitive without to. The infinitive construction refers to a complete event: I saw them arrive. I watched the sun rise. 2. Verbs expressing opinion: assume, believe, consider, expect, find, hold, judge, know, presume, prove, show, think. After these verbs we use mostly the full indefinite infinitive, while the use of the perfect infinitive is rare: They assumed him to be French. I found him to be much younger than I had expected. The OIC with these verbs sounds formal and the same idea is more commonly expressed by a that-clause: They knew his views to be wrong (= They knew that his views were wrong.), or the subjective infinitive construction: They believed him to be a reliable man. (= He was believed to be a reliable man.) 3. Verbs of declaring: declare, pronounce, report: They declared him to be insane. The OIC is rarely used with these verbs. They declared that he was insane. He was pronounced dead. 4. Verbs denoting wish and intention.  She did not want them to go. 5. Verbs denoting feelings and emotions: like, can’t bear, hate: She could not bear him to leave her. I don not like him to speak in this way. The Subjective Infinitive Construction: The infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. The nominal part of the construction is the subject of the sentence and the infinitive is part of a compound verbal predicate: He is likely to come soon. The SIC is very often used with verbs in the passive voice: a) verbs of perception: hear, see, observe: The baby was often heard to cry.; b) verbs expressing opinion and judgement: assume, believe, claim, consider, discover, expect, feel, find, hold, know, reckon, report, say, see (= consider), think, understand. The full infinitive that follows the verbs is usually to be, to have, or a progressive or perfect infinitive: The house is believed to be haunted. He was understood to have left for Canada. The SIC is often used with the following active verbs: seem, appear (= seem), turn out, prove (= turn out), happen, to chance (= happen): She seemed to believe me. It turned out to be a very nice party. The SIC is used with expressions be (un)likely, be sure, be certain: She was likely to forget it quite soon. The For-to-Infinitive Construction The infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or a pronoun preceded by the preposition for: I waited for them to say something. The for-to-infinitive construction can have various functions in a sentence: Subject: It was impossible for him to go there. Predicative: That is for you to decide. Complex object: They called for action to be taken against the terrorists. Attribute: It was a nice example for you to follow. Adverbial modifier: of purpose: She put the money on the table for me to see it. of result: She spoke too fast for me to follow. 
 

Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive: Subject: The infinitive can be used as the subject of a sentence: To speak to him about it was something none of them would risk doing. This use is considered to be formal in Modern English. More common are structures in which the infinitive as the extraposed subject is introduced by it. In this case, nouns and adjectives are used predicatively to express one's opinion, emotion or recommendation. It would be curious to know the results. It was decent of her to drive me home. The nouns are semantically connected with the adjectives and include: mistake, crime, offence, a good idea, pity, etc.: It is an offence to drop litter in the street. It would be a pity to miss such an opportunity. Sometimes a perfect infinitive is used here: It was stupid of you not to have accepted the offer. The infinitive as extraposed subject is also used with finite verbs describing the effect of some experience on a person. The verbs used here include: amaze, amuse, annoy, astonish, bother, delight, horrify, interest, please, shock, surprise, upset, worry, etc.: It pleased him to think of his beloved. The same sentence structure is also used with the verbs take, cost and pay: It took me an hour to get there. Predicative: 1. The infinitive commonly follows the link verb be: His only dream was to buy a car. Fairly often, the subject in this kind of sentence is an abstract noun and the infinitive serves to disclose its meaning. Sometimes the infinitive can be preceded by wh-words like where, who, what, etc.: The difficulty was where to cross the river. Occasionally the verb mean is used instead of be: To act like that meant to destroy our friendship. The infinitive can also be used as part of a predicative. In this case it modifies an adjective the meaning of which is not complete without the infinitive: Granny was always hard to please. If a verb in the infinitive form requires a preposition, the latter cannot be omitted and goes after the verb: The bridge is dangerous to walk over. The subject is never repeated after the preposition. 2. In Modern English we can find structures like: He is a brave man to do that. He will be crazy to go there. In sentences like He will be crazy to go there, the infinitive phrase gives the speaker's reason for the judgment given at the beginning of the sentence. From this point of view, the function of the infinitive may be defined as the adverbial modifier of reason. 3. The infinitive following modal verbs and verbal phrases denoting modality constitutes a part of the compound verbal modal predicate. If the infinitive follows a verb of beginning, repetition, duration or cessation, it is regarded as part of the compound verbal aspect predicate. 

Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive: Adverbial Modifier: 1. The infinitive can function as an adverbial modifier of purpose in a sentence where the subject of the sentence is to perform the action denoted by the infinitive: She went to the airport to meet her sister. The infinitive of purpose can be introduced by so as (not) to or in order (not) to: She switched off the telephone in order not to be disturbed. 2. Most often we find the infinitive denoting result in structures with too and enough. Too and the infinitive can form the following structures: She is too happy to say a word. We can use far or much before too for emphasis. The structure too + adjective precedes a noun it modifies. The infinitive is used with a preposition if the verb requires one: The room is too cold to stay in. Enough and the infinitive form the following structures: She was foolish enough to refuse. There also exists a structure like He is enough of an optimist not to take it seriously. But it is not very common and it is better to express the same idea with He is too much of an optimist to take it seriously. In questions it is normal to use such/so... as + to-infinitive to express result: Was he such a fool (so foolish) as to refuse? The infinitive denotes result in the common request: Would you be so kind as to help me? There are also some other structures with such... as + to-infinitive: The case for the prosecution was such as to convince the whole of the jury. 3. The infinitive as an adverbial modifier of comparison is introduced by the conjunctions as if and as though: She answered sharply as if to challenge him. 4. The infinitive in the function of adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances expresses a sequel to the event expressed by the finite verb. There are two types of structures found here: a) with only — to introduce something which immediately follows the action or event described by the finite verb and which we find surprising or unfortunate: I finally found my watch, only to discover that it had stopped.; b) without only: She came to the hospital to be told that her husband was better. Parenthesis: Certain infinitive phrases can function as parenthesis and are placed at the beginning of a sentence, or sometimes at the end. These phrases include: to start with, not to speak of, to be honest, to be fair, to tell you the truth, needless to say.  Needless to say, it infuriated him.  
 
 

Forms and Uses of the Gerund: 1. In Modern English the gerund has the following forms: a) the simple (indefinite) active gerund: reading; b) the simple (indefinite) passive gerund: being read; c) the perfect active gerund: having read; d) the perfect passive gerund: having been read. The use of the perfect gerund, both active and passive, is very often redundant, for the time reference of the gerund is normally clear from the context: They reported seeing the murderer. (= They reported having seen the murderer.) However, with a number of verbs we often tend to find a perfect gerund, although an indefinite gerund would be sufficient. These verbs include admit, celebrate, deny, mention, recall. Thus, Mary denied having seen him and Mary denied seeing him are equally possible. Sometimes the use of a perfect gerund becomes necessary. It occurs when we want to emphasize that the action expressed by the gerund precedes the one expressed by the finite verb: He admitted having had the intention to assassinate the Prime Minister. (= He admitted that once he had had this intention.) This is contrasted with: He admitted having the intention to assassinate the Prime Minister. (= He admitted he still had this intention.) 2. The gerund can be used singly (He was intent on winning), in a phrase (She left without saying good-bye), or in a predicative construction (Mr. Smith was against his daughters getting married). In a gerundial construction, the gerund is in predicate relation to a noun or a pronoun. The subject of the sentence is not identical with the subject performing the action denoted by the gerund. The nominal elements of the construction can be expressed by a noun in the common case: Do you remember people of different social classes protesting against the new bill? (= ...как люди разных социальных классов протестовали...) The possessive of nouns is avoided in informal style and when the noun phrase is lengthy. The possessive is used mostly in formal style when the noun phrase has personal reference: The very lack of refinement in the circus and its popular appeal probably account for Lautrec's having come to the subject when he did. The nominal element of the construction can also be expressed by a possessive pronoun or, occasionally, by a personal pronoun in the objective case, the object pronoun being more informal and emphasizing the subject of the action: I dislike his / him coming here every day. Various other pronouns — all, that, this, both, each, something, etc. — may become the nominal element of a gerundial construction: She insisted on both of them being wrong. Gerundial predicative constructions perform a variety of nominal functions in sentences — subject, direct object, prepositional object, postpositional attribute, and adverbial modifier. 

Syntactic Functions of the Gerund: Subject: 1. On the whole, the gerund is more often used at the beginning of a sentence than the infinitive: Working with him was fun. This use is not confined to formal English. Still, it is more common to introduce the gerund in a sentence with the help of the pronoun it: It was great fun skiing. There are a few fixed phrases which begin with introductory it and are followed by the gerund or gerundial construction as the extraposed subject — it is fun, it is no/little use, it is no good, it is (not) worth: It is worth paying attention to what he says. 2. A single gerund as subject can also be introduced by there to form the following structures: There is no denying his talent. Attribute: When used as an attribute, the gerund is always preceded by the preposition of. Fairly often the gerund modifies an abstract noun: He does not stand a chance of winning. They give the impression of not working hard enough. Adverbial Modifier: In this function the gerund is also preceded by a preposition. 1. As an adverbial modifier of time the gerund follows the prepositions after, before, on, since: They have not spoken a word since leaving the party. On has the same meaning as when, emphasizing that the first event is not completed but overlaps the second. 2. As an adverbial modifier of manner the gerund is used with by and in: They escaped by sliding down a rope. 3. In the function of adverbial modifier of purpose, the gerund is introduced by for: It turned out that the suitcase had been used for carrying drugs. 4. Gerunds introduced by for fear of, owing to are adverbial modifiers of cause: They did not mention it for fear of hurting her feelings. 5. As an adverbial modifier of concession the gerund is introduced by in spite of and despite: Despite spending her childhood in a village she does not know much about country life. 6. When the gerund is introduced by the preposition without it is regarded either as an adverbial modifier of condition or as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances: She went by without looking up. Predicative: The gerund can easily function as subject-predicative: Her only fun was reading books.  
 

Syntactic Functions of the Gerund: Object: The gerund is widely used in this function after a great number of verbs and expressions. The gerund which follows a modal verb or a verb of beginning, duration, repetition or cessation constitutes the nominal part of the compound verbal predicate. 1. Verbs always followed by the gerund: She kept (on) saying that she was worried. She risks losing all her money. He considered moving to another district. In spite of the noise she carried on writing. 2. The gerund is used after a number of verbs with prepositions: He dreamed of having a car. She apologized for disturbing us. I object to their coming here. 3. The gerund is used after the following prepositional expressi0ns: I am used to getting up early. What is the use of waiting? 4. There are a number of verbs which can be followed by either the infinitive or the gerund. We use the infinitive after the verbs remember, forget if we remember or forget to do something we have or had to do: I forgot to ask him. We use the gerund if we remember or forget something that took place in the past: She forgot ever going there. We use the gerund when our feelings accompany or follow what is going on, so that the meaning of these verbs is close to "not enjoy": I did not like being a nuisance but I felt that I was. In the affirmative we can use both the infinitive and the gerund with practically no difference in meaning: I prefer staying / to stay at home. We use cannot bear + gerund to speak about something we dislike: I could not bear living with them under one roof. We use the gerund when we want to describe something unpleasant that is most likely to happen in the future (dread) or has happened in the past (regret): He regretted having told her that. I dreaded them coming. We use be afraid + gerund to show that somebody wants to avoid an awkward situation or is generally afraid of something or somebody: The girl was afraid of offending anyone. Two options are possible with the verbs advise, intend, recommend: 1)verb + gerund: She advised taking a bus. 2) verb + (pro)noun + infinitive: He advised me not to buy that suit. Intend can also be used with the infinitive alone: He intends to marry her. The gerundial construction is not common. The infinitive is used when the verb go on means "proceed": She went on to emphasize the growing need to tackle environmental problems. The gerund is used when go on means "continue": She went on repeating her story.  

The Subjective Participial Construction The participle is in predicative relation to the subject of the sentence expressed by a noun or a pronoun: She was seen running away. The nominal part of the construction performs the function of the subject, while the verbal part expressed by the participle performs the function of part of a compound verbal predicate. This construction is mostly used with perceptual verbs (SPC with participle I) and verbs of encounter (SPC with participle II): He was found talking to himself in a whisper. The girl was discovered crouched under the table. The Absolute Participial Construction 1. In the APC, participle I or participle II is in a predicate relation to a noun in the common case or pronoun in the nominative case. The APC is used, along with adverbial clauses, to introduce a subject different from the subject of the finite verb: The weather being cold, they decided not to go to the lake. Participle I indefinite is used in this construction to refer something that is going on at the same time as the event described by the finite verb or to mention a fact that is relevant to the fact stated by the finite verb: The door being locked, he could not get in. Participle I perfect or participle II are used to refer to something which happened before the event described by the finite verb: The question having been asked, the minister had to answer it somehow. The absolute participial construction can function as an adverbial modifier of time, cause, attendant circumstances and condition. Participle I perfect is used mostly in the first two functions which very often overlap: The text having been analyzed, she proceeded to write the summary. (adverbial modifier of time) The door locked, she put the key in her pocket. (adverbial modifier of reason) 2. When the APC functions as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances, the preposition with can be used with it, so that we have the prepositional absolute participial construction: The old woman stood up, with tears running down her face. Participle I indefinite and participle II are generally used after with. Both the absolute construction and the prepositional absolute construction can be used without a participle: She came into the room, her face pale.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Forms of the Participle: There are two participles in English — participle I (present or -ing participle) and participle II (past or -ed participle). The forms of participle I coincide with those of the gerund: a) the simple (indefinite) active: reading; b) the simple (indefinite) passive: being read; c) the perfect active: having read; d) the perfect passive: having been read. Participle I perfect (both active and passive) is used when it is necessary to emphasize that the action expressed by the participle precedes the one expressed by the finite verb. Participle I perfect is mostly used to express temporal and causal relationships. Participle II of most verbs has only one form. If the verb is regular, we add -ed (-d) to the infinitive: work — worked. Participle II of irregular verbs is their "third" form.  Constructions with the Participle Both participle I and participle II can be used singly (She went away crying; The tree was cut down), in a phrase (Do you know the man standing at the entrance? Shaken by the news, she stood motionless), or in a predicative construction (I saw them stealing apples in my garden; She found the lock broken). The participle can form four predicative constructions: a) the objective participial construction (OPC); b) the subjective participial construction (SPC); c) the absolute participial construction (APC); The Objective Participial Construction (OPC) As with other non-finite constructions, the participle in a OPC is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or an object pronoun which denotes a person or a thing performing the action denoted by the participle: I heard them talking loudly. The OPC with participle I is used after the following groups of verbs. 1. Verbs of perception: feel, hear, notice, observe, overhear, perceive, see, smell, spot, spy, watch: They noticed a ship approaching the island. The participial construction is used instead of the infinitive construction to refer to part of an event, to emphasize the idea of process. 2. Verbs of encounter: catch, discover, find: She caught them eating jam. The infinitive construction after find refers to something found out by investigation: They found him to be innocent. The participial construction denotes something discovered by chance: They found a man lying in the ditch. 3. Causative verbs: get, have: He had me swimming in a week. The OPC with participle II is used after the following verbs. 1. Perceptual verbs: see, hear, feel: She heard her name mentioned. 2. Volitional verbs and expressions: would like, need, want: I want this watch repaired quickly. 3. Causative verbs: get, have: She had her car serviced. 4. The verb consider: I consider the case closed. The objective participial construction always functions as complex object in a sentence.