Глаголы широкой семантики

Shall and should

The verb shall is used in some (particularly formal) varieties of English in place of will, indicating futurity, when the subject is first person (I shall, we shall). For discussion of this, as well as details of the other usages mentioned here, see shall and will.

With second- and third-person subjects, shall indicates an order, command or prophecy: Cinderella, you shall go to the ball! It is often used in writing laws and specifications: Those convicted of violating this law shall be imprisoned for a term of not less than three years; The electronics assembly shall be able to operate within a normal temperature range.

Shall is sometimes used in questions (in the first, or possibly third, person) to ask for advice or confirmation of a suggestion: Shall I read now?; What shall we wear? Overall, if one looks at its frequency across time, "shall" is used less and less and might drop out of English usage completely in a few generations.

Should is sometimes used as a first-person equivalent for would (in its conditional and "future-in-the-past" uses), in the same way that shall can replace will. Should is also used to form a replacement for the present subjunctive in some varieties of English, and also in some conditional sentences with hypothetical future reference – see English subjunctive.

Should is often used to describe an expected or recommended behavior or circumstance. It can be used to give advice or to describe normative behavior, though without such strong obligatory force as must or have to. Thus You should never lie describes a social or ethical norm. It can also express what will happen according to theory or expectations: This should work.

Both shall and should can be used with the perfect infinitive (shall/should have (done)) in their role as first-person equivalents of will and would (thus to form future perfect or conditional perfect structures). Also shall have may express an order with perfect aspect (you shall have finished your duties by nine o'clock). When should is used in this way it usually expresses something which would have been expected, or normatively required, at some time in the past, but which did not in fact happen (or is not known to have happened): I should have done that yesterday ("it would have been expedient, or expected of me, to do that yesterday").

The negative forms are shall not and should not, contracted to shan't and shouldn't. The negation effectively applies to the main verb rather than the auxiliary: you should not do this implies not merely that there is no need to do it, but that there is a need not to do it.

 

Must

The modal must expresses obligation or necessity: You must use this form; We must try to escape. It can also express a confident assumption (the epistemic rather than deontic use), such as in It must be here somewhere.

An alternative to must is the expression have to (in the present tense sometimes have got to), which is often more idiomatic in informal English when referring to obligation. This also provides other forms in which must is defective (see Replacements for defective forms above) and enables simple negation (see below).

Whe used with the perfect infinitive, must expresses only assumption: Sue must have left means that the speaker confidently assumes that Sue has left. To express obligation or necessity in the past, had to or some other synonym must be used.

The formal negation of must is must not (contracted to mustn't). However the negation effectively applies to the main verb, not the modality: You must not do this means that you are required not to do it, not just that you are not required to do it. To express the lack of requirement or obligation, the negative of have to or need (see below) can be used: You don't have to do it; You needn't do it.

The above negative forms are not usually used in the sense of confident assumption; here it is common to use can't to express confidence that something is not the case (as in It can't be here or, with the perfect, Sue can't have left).

Mustn't can nonetheless be used as a simple negative of must in tag questions and other questions expressing doubt: We must do it, mustn't we? Mustn't he be in the operating room by this stage?

 

1.3 “Make” and “Get” as verbs of general semantics

Make

There are English words that are used in many senses, in other words, in English, a large number of homonyms and polysemous words, which is not the same. Ambiguous words are synonymous with each other.

Verb make is an ambiguous word and hear it in different cases. Translation Make, as everyone knows, делать, but it is also готовить, составлять, издавать звук, устанавливать, вводить, приписывать, равняться, являться, стать, зарабатывать, выиграть etc. This verb can even act as a noun and mean physique or stock character, and style, but in America it is also information on the identity, obtained from police files.

- We've got a make on Ruth; she's on our files. - Мы установили личность Руфи, она есть в наших картотеках - said the police agent Kate investigator John.

He meets with the approval of:

- OK, you made it good. - Все в порядке, молодец.

- He will make a good manager! - Он станет хорошим менеджером! - The head of the trade department, Nick Thompson, at a meeting dedicated to the reorganization of the department, with approval despite the newfound Supervisor Steve, who according to his instructions evaluated the work of other employees. Стив почувствовал, что как менеджер наконец достиг своей цели. Но начальник, a huge man, with the make and muscles of a prize-fighter - a man with a healthy body and muscles professional boxer, no stopping and wanting to show other employees how his protege asked Steve to tell you what he did last week . - Steve, tell us, what did you make last week. He sees that in the hands of Steve's thick file and thinks it's reports for the past week. Employees laugh. Then they are well aware that in this folder. Because before that Steve asked them приготовить отчёты - Steve asked them to make reports.

They are well aware that for the past week, Steve занимался  любовью to the chief secretary (Steve was making love with the secretary of the boss.)

Make - it's not just заниматься любовью, но и заключать брак in a formal speech. He made her his wife - он женился на ней.

- Made in China. - Cделано в Китае, reluctantly said John, trying priladit back down, bounced off PC keyboard ...

Make - набирать вес:

- Two of them made twenty stones each in sixteen week. - Два из них набрали за шестнадцать недель двадцать стоунов (280 фунтов).

Make also means приводить в порядок, убирать, готовить; to make beds – убирать постели. Идти домой - make. We slowly made our way home. - We walked slowly home. The phrase'' You'll only make bad worse "is translated into Russian as: - Мы неторопливо шли домой. But it can be translated literally: - Вы только сделаете хорошее плохим. It will be clear, but the clumsy Russian. On the example of the use of the verb make, we see how much more, in this case Russian.

There are still ambiguous words that are used in the U.S. in a perverted sense of (distorted, from our point of view). This item - "пункт" и stuff - "штат сотрудников", which are often synonymous. Items may be your bag and shoes, and can of Coke, and English textbook. Items of your room - chairs, table, sofa ... All this can be called a "stuff." The meaning does not change. "Staff" can ever be anything.

- Did you put all the stuff in your gym bag? - Ты все сложил в свою сумку? - Mick asks John after a workout, knowing that his friend always forgets something in the locker room.

He nods

- OK, all items are here. - Все нормально, все на месте.

- Check all your items, boys! - Проверьте свои вещи, парни! - Shouts soldiers Sergeant Timothy Timpson, sitting in a helicopter and preparing for landing, it is critically looking at the most inexperienced young soldier. - I see you don't have all the stuff, guy. Guess, what did you forget? - Вижу, у тебя - неполный боекомплект. Ну-ка, прикинь, что ты забыл, приятель.

Get

The verb to get a number of things depending on the context. He is considered one of the 100 most common verbs in English. Experts say that the writing is not very good use of the verb to get, but it is so convenient that it is impossible not to use it.

The basic meaning of the verb to get – получать. For example: I get letters from this firm every day. She got a present from him yesterday.

To get + noun or pronoun usually has «получать», «приобретать», «зарабатывать» (if it is a cold)

For example: Did you get my postcard yesterday? Получили ли вы мою открытку вчера?

Do not get cold. Не простудись!

To get + adjective usually meaning " становиться "

For example: I’m getting tired. Я начинаю уставать Our dog is getting old. Наша собака стареет.

To get + preposition

If the verb is going to get an excuse, it means a change in the motion.

Why do not get in and have a drink? Почему бы тебе не зайти и не выпить чего-нибудь.

To get + participle 2 (past participle)

1) Very often this expression is used to value the fact that someone is doing something myself.

Get divorced развестись

Get lost           потеряться

Get dressed одеться

Get married пожениться

2) To get used where one would employ the verb to be.

He got caught by the police (was caught) Он был пойман полицией.

3) When, after the addition is to get 2 + participle (past participle) expression can be set to "закончить что-то делать "

Get your room tidied and we'll go to the park.

There are also other points of the verb to get, for example, in the sense of " убеждать "

I cannot get my students to do it. Я никак не могу убедить своих учеников сделать это.

The verb is to get more and phrasal verbs (phrasal verb). That is, it is such a verb, which, in combination with different particles have different values. This combination is idiomatic. That is, its value can not be derived from the meaning of the verb and the corresponding particle. For example: They got on each other. Means that they liked each other. I cannot get along with my boss. Я не могу ужиться с моим боссом. (This is most common in American English. In the British version of this value use the verb get on.

 

 

 

Chapter II. Verbs of general semantics in the Russian language

2.1 Verbs of general semantics in the Russian language

The term of verisimilar is proposed by N.N. Amoz, is not commonly used in Russian studies, but is widely used in relation to analytic languages. Verbs of general semantics call these words, the values ​​of which are characterized by a wide denotative relatedness and contextual conditioning (for example, English verbs to give, to get, to take, to put, and others, can, in combination with postpositions to form a set of values ​​that are semantically distant from each other). According to E. Belyaeva, explore the prototypical values ​​of English verbs, "the general semantics of words - words with a high degree of generalization. They have an extensive conceptual framework, so it is not possible to bring all the values ​​of these tokens to any single meaningful core"². S. Pesin also expressed doubts about the existence of a prototype verbs of general semantics words: "... the prototype lexical invariance is difficult to distinguish from the general semantics of the words, as in the case of verbs of general semantics we are dealing with an abstraction of a higher order, with some amorphous conceptual framework and the lack of clear reference relatedness"³. This is probably why the identification of mechanisms of semantic derivation words of general semantics is a problem for researchers.

The concept of "well-developed multiple meanings" and " verbs of general semantics " are not synonymous, since the former emphasizes the quantitative aspect of the phenomenon (the existence of a set of values), and the second - semantic (generalized nature of semantics, a broad reference, the dependence of the values ​​of the context, not explicitly expressed between values). According to EA Chudinova, the MAC has 619 verbs, with more than 7 values⁴. Of course, only a fraction of these verbs are verbs of general semantics.

By verbs of general semantics we include verbs with more than 7 values ​​that can be denoted as specific observable physical actions, and non-specific unobservable emotional, verbal, or social processes. Therefore, their main difference from verbs with more derived values ​​is that values ​​ verb of general semantics come in three semantic fields: "Action", "Status" and "attitude" - and represent the denotative situation with a different set of participants. Semantic relationship between the values verbs of general semantics may be lost, which makes the representation of such verbs as valued and brings them to the homonyms.

The study we have identified a body verbs of general semantics Russian: бежать (10); бить (11); брать (11); бросить (10); быть (12); вести (10); делать (8); держать (12); держаться (10); идти (30); крутить (9); лежать (9); лезть (11); оставить (12); падать (11); поднять (16); подняться (16); покрыть (11); положить (9); принять (19); пройти (16); пропустить (13); пустить (10); свести (16); сесть (13); сидеть (8); снять (13); стоять (23); тянуть (25); тянуться (19); ударить (20); ходить (17).

In the words of the underlying values ​​of the data refer to different semantic fields and lexical-semantic groups movement (run, walk, climb, fall, walk, walk), moving object (cast, lead, twist, lift, put, to reduce , remove, pull) of the object in a certain position or change its location (stay, lie down, sit, sitting, standing), physical impacts on the object (hit, hit), being in the order (to take, hold, receive), cover (cover), manifestations of quality (stretch). Verbs to be and to do, and are characterized by a generalized semantics are, in the terminology of A. Wierzbicki, the semantic primitives. Verbs leave, miss, are included in the basic values ​​of a few lexical-semantic groups: keep 'putting, putting, putting, etc. somewhere, forgotten or deliberately not take with you when you go away '(lexical-semantic groups space object displacement, lexical-semantic groups get at your disposal traffic) skip' give way to someone, smth., let go, drive somewhere l. '(lexical-semantic groups permission and prohibition, lexical-semantic groups movement relative to destination), and let' cease to hold power, to give to someone, smth. freedom.

Outside the context of the values ​​ verbs of general semantics are defined quite easily, for example, hit - hit smth., Hold - not to fall, fall, picking up, stand - in an upright position, not moving. Analysis of the context suggests that the compatibility of verbs with different types of referents are such significant modification of semantics, with which the connection with the main values ​​of the derivative becomes very obvious: the boy hits the ball, the wind slap in the face, the light strikes the eye, the driver hit the horse with his whip, the army hits the opponent, moose hunter has a gun, the gun has a hundred paces, the bully has lights in the stairwell, the duty has sounded the alarm, the clock strikes midnight, his trembling, etc. This is consistent with the well-known in semasiology regularity formulated in G. Kolshansky: "The wider meaning of the word, the greater the dependence on the context"⁵.

Some models of the semantic derivation verbs of general semantics certain words are represented in the works of O. Seliverstova, GI Sectional, EV Paducheva but comprehensive description of the class of units, as far as we know it, still do.

 

2.2 “Бить” and “Брать” as verbs of general semantics

If one accepts the view that the basis of all the values ​​of an ambiguous word is a cognitive model (in the papers on cognitive linguistics, it is called differently: prototypical scheme lexical prototype frame, cognitive script, etc.), you should determine what terms of the context and the mechanisms of values ​​gives rise to words of general semantics and how varied cognitive scenario verb of general semantics. Consider the features of semantic derivation verbs of general semantics beat and take.

• Бить. The verb beat recorded 11 values ​​and a few shades. The values ​​of the verb belong to different lexical-semantic groups: 4 lexical-semantic variant are at the strike, 3 lexical-semantic variant - the group sound, the rest of lexical-semantic variant, who are at loss of life of the living entity, division, winning and lesions, physiological condition, traffic, applicable to different types of entities (the clock strikes, fountain beats) and sent to different objects (to beat the enemy, break the dishes.) Derivational slot with the top hit includes derivatives 468, 120 of them verbs.

The study of the semantic paradigm of verb of general semantics beat suggests the presence of cognitive scenario of physical effects on an object that varies in derivative values.

Cognitive scenario consists of several stages: 1) the subject makes any repetitive actions (for example, puts a hand, a stick, and another gun down on someone, something), and 2) the subject affects thus the object and discovers its power; 3) the impact of the subject is often subject to negative as a result of an inanimate object is destroyed, becomes unfit for use, and animate object experiencing physical and / or mental suffering.

The individual elements of the cognitive script programmed appearance derived values. For the development of the semantic structure of the verb to beat the most significant are the signs and multiple repetition of similar actions that are present in almost all of its values. For example: 'publish rhythmic, melodic sounds of blows in a certain amount to be reported at the time (of the hours with the battle)', 'blow, producing sound by repeatedly banging on the same place. " Some values ​​of the verb to beat (‘разделять что-л. на части’, ‘умерщвлять, убивать животных, рыбу на охоте’) also contains a sign of repeated action, which is manifested in the character of the object: the verb can be used in conjunction with multiple objects (бить посуду, но *бить тарелку; бить дичь, но *бить дикого волка). Sign of activity of the subject and focus of its efforts to damage the object is represented in many meanings of the verb, including in the lexical-semantic variant, representing the situation of victory (beating the opponent). Sign of movement that accompanies the action of the subject, comes to the fore in the meaning of the verb to beat, sold, for example, in the following contexts: a fountain shoots, it has a fever. Effective nature of the perceived pitch is found in a number of lexical-semantic variant sound (бить в колокол, бить в барабан).

In derived verb meaning выбить, отбить, разбить, сбить, etc. inherited component to motivating verb. The study of semantic relations between the values ​​of the generating and derived verbs can detect the components that are active in the semantic derivation of verbs.

Verb разбить has 10 values. The semantics of the prefix defines the conceptual idea of ​​the verb - a violation of the integrity of the object - and focuses on the action. In contrast to the verb to beat, the semantic derivation is largely determined by the presence of signs of repeated and repeatability action, meaning of the verb break profiled indicative of results: 1) as a result of physical effects on an object is its destruction, the destruction (разбить стакан, разбить противника, разбить надежды, разбить все обвинения), 2) as a result of physical pressure deforms the object (разбить затылок о камни, разбить сапоги), and 3) as a result of exposure to the object, it singles out any parts, creating a new object (разбить землю на участки, разбить туристов на группы, разбить парк).

Effective component determines the development of the values ​​of the verb выбить, in which the components of the physical impact on the object falls into the rank and acquire the status of propositions included. When clotting proposition in dictionary definitions verb appears an indication of the way of the 'attacks (strokes) do smth.': выбить ковер 'striking, clean'; выбить в стене нишу 'blow to deepen'; выбить медаль 'strikes produce'; выбить лист жести 'blows straighten'.

Derivation of values ​​verb сбить also assess the impact of component 'a blow to shift, to move an object. " This component is crucial for many values ​​of the verb: сбить яблоко с дерева 'strike, the impetus to move, make fall, separated from smth.'; сбить шляпу набекрень 'budge an abrupt movement, push', shoot down all in a heap ' сбить всех в кучу, to unite. " The basis of a metaphorical meaning as is the idea of ​​moving the object: сбить 'forward thinking, talking on what-l. subject; translate '(сбить разговор на другую тему)