Социология религии по теории Макса Вебера

     Weber did not bring as central attention to the question on a religion origin, and therefore and did not consider a question on its essence. He was interested first of all in studying of existing structural forms, structure and religion type. It is no wonder that Weber devotes the works mainly to studying of those forms of religiousness which are characteristic for advanced societies. To primitive religions he addresses only by the way, without doing their special subject of consideration.

     In the centre of Weber’s attention are the great world religions which have replaced throughout the first millennium B.C. former forms of religious life. The Buddhism, Judaism, Zoroastrism, Christianity, and Islam are all the world religions assuming rather a high level of social differentiation, and, hence - the considerable intellectual development, occurrence of the person allocated with clear logic consciousness. Naturally to intellectual type of world religions, - where the group beginning is weakened and allocated individual where value of the dogmatic and ethical moments increases, in comparison with figurative and ritual, - the new methodological toolkit was necessary.

     Here the individualistic methodology of Weber is that key which allows reflecting most adequately character of intellectual processes in world religions. Weber's methodology demanding the analysis of motives of operating individuals, finds to itself a corresponding object of research.

     Weber by empirical supervision and comparison fixes, where and under what social conditions, among what social strata and groups the ritually-cult moment, and where ascetically-active (means not cult actions, but world activity), where is mystic-contemplate, and where is intellectual-dogmatic prevails in religion. It gives the chance to Weber to establish individual shape of various religions.

     So, according to Weber, are existed magic elements most typical for religion of the agricultural people and, within the limits of advanced cultures, for country estate. Belief in destiny, fate makes the characteristic accessory of religion of the people-conquerors and military estate. The religion of city estates, in particular handicraftsmen as Weber shows, has rationalistic character as they in a smaller measure, than farmers, depend from external, environment, and in a greater degree - from rhythmical the correct, rationally organised labour process. However in a kind of that world religions, as a rule, arise and extend not only among one estate in them is present, and at rather original combinations, a number of the moments.

     Its analysis of Confucianism is very indicative in relation outlook and methodology of Weber. Though in a word strong sense it is impossible to name Confucianism religion for in it there is no number of the moments, essential to religious installation, for example, belief in afterlife. At the same time on the social value and that role which it has played in the Chinese culture, it, according to Weber, it is possible to carry to world religions.

     Confucianism, he considers, is limiting rationalistic, interest to the other world, taking place, say, in the Buddhism or Christianity or - from even more ancient formations is alien to ancient Egypt religions.

     The major blessings from the point of view of Confucian ethics, this longevity, riches, that is safe terrestrial life. Therefore the motives connected with belief in afterlife, motives of expiation, rescue are not characteristic for Confucianism. Though in China also there was a messianic hope of the other savior - the emperor - it nevertheless did not take the form of that belief in "utopia" which is characteristic for a Judaism and Christianity.

     The state cult was pointed out sober and simple: a victim, a ritual prayer, music and rhythmic dance. Here there was no ecstasy, asceticism and in general the irrational beginning bringing spirit of anxiety and a disorder in strictly rational ethics. Here there was no also an individual prayer in the western sense of a word. There was no also an individually-personal relation between the person and god. Confucianism was only ethics - ethics inside the world.

     System, order and harmony are here philosophy of these ethics, equal both to the state condition, and to a state of mind of the person. As Weber marked, "the reason of Confucianism was rationalism of an order and to it education and formation problems" have been subordinated. Specificity of Confucian ethics was that, despite rationalism, it was not hostile to magic. However, ethical virtues admitted above magic charms and spells.

     All it means that in Confucianism has been connected two beginnings: esthetic-rational and rational-magic. As Weber shows, rationalism here has character essentially distinct from the western type of rationalism for the Chinese rationalism has been united with magic and tradition. Therefore, on Weber, here there could not be that form of a science which developed on the West European soil, and also could not develop similar with western the type of rational managing and is formal-rational type of management.

     Considering further individual shape of other world is religious-ethical systems, Weber gives their classification, according to what social strata were their main carriers. Here is his classical scheme:

     - Confucianism carrier is the organizing world of bureaucrat;

     - Hinduism is the ordering world the magician;

     - The Buddhism is the monk-contemplator wandering on the world;

     - Islam is the submitting world the soldier;

     - Christianities is the vagrant handicraftsman.

     Special attention Weber paid to so-called «religions of parries", that is the groups standing on the lowest step and even out of social hierarchy. In his opinion if for the most exclusive, aristocratic layers have interest to other world in "religions of parries" are brightly expressed eschatological motives, aspirations to the other, as a rule, is characteristic.

     Analyzing religious "ethics of parries", first of all on a Judaism material, especially "religion of prophets", and also various Intrachristian currents and sects, Weber shows that carriers "religions of parries" have never been slaves or free time-workers. The exception here does not make, in his opinion, and modern to him proletariat. The most active in the religious relation among not exclusive layers as Weber considers, small handicraftsmen, impoverished natives of more exclusive layers. Thereupon, Weber was interested in the type of a world view of Russian people.

     By consideration "religiousness of parries" which as it was marked, was oriented on the other world, Weber notices that this orientation does not exclude intellectualism.

     Weber classifies religions as well on the basis of the various relations to the world. So, for Confucianism world acceptance is characteristic; on the contrary negation and aversion of the world characteristically for the Buddhism. India, on Weber, is a cradle of religious-ethical doctrines, theoretically and almost denying the world. Some religions accept the world on the terms of its improvement and correction.

     Those are the Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrism. From, whether the world and in what measure is accepted, the relation of religious ethics to policy sphere, in general to violence depends. So, the religion rejecting the world, as a rule, is apolitical. Here the Buddhism though ideas of a nonviolence are characteristic as well for Christianity is most consecutive. There, where the world completely is accepted, religious views, on Weber, will easily be coordinated with policy sphere.

     World religions carry, as a rule, soteric character (Soter in the translation from Greek means the savior). A rescue problem is one of central in religious ethics. Ways of the decision of this problem in this or that religion, in the big degree define a way of life professing it. And here again Weber analyzes religiously - ethical installations depending on they assume what ways of rescue. Two variants are possible, first of all: rescue of the person through characteristic action (in the Buddhism) and by means of the intermediary-savior (a Judaism, Christianity, Islam). In case of the former rescue methods are or ritual cult actions and ceremonies, or actions social (love for the neighbor, charity, care of relatives - in the Chinese religion), or self-improvement.

     As to the second case, some variants of rescue are here too possible. For example, rescue through an institutionalization that is an accessory to church as a rescue condition. It is characteristic for Catholicism, Orthodoxy. Other variant is rescue through belief (Judaism, a Lutheranism). Thirdly is rescue through favour of predetermination (Islam, Calvinism).

     Weber distinguishes the ways of rescue depending not so much from performance of precepts and from ritual actions of believers, how many from internal installation. Here he also finds out two different types:

     1) rescue through the active ethical action;

     2) through mystical contemplation.

     In the first case the believer realizes himself as the tool of divine will, and a necessary condition of ethical character of his activity is the ascesis. And two variants are possible: if the purpose is flight from the world then asceticism is means of clearing of all bonds connecting the person with the world if the purpose is world transformation as it takes place in a Calvinism the ascesis serves the purposes of intrawordly economic activities.

     The second way of rescue is contemplate, and this way purposes achievement of a condition of a mystical enlightenment, rest in the divine. 
 

     As we see, the comparison and classification method to which Weber resorts, demands distinction and opposition of phenomena of a religious condition. In "Protestant ethics" this comparison went mainly under the scheme: magic - rational, further Weber enters a number of other bases for comparison.

     To Catholicism as to the traditional form of religiousness, it is opposed Protestantism. Protestantism, on Weber, is the nontraditional religion assigning to the individual without intermediaries and without a magic element its dialogue good luck. Traditionalism and it means, on Weber, first of all dependence of the individual and магизм, acts as the irrational beginning. On the contrary, antitrationalism, on Weber, this clearing from not cleared by consciousness and reason of the separate individual of elements of religiousness, including cult-outer side and from priesthood intermediary that transforms action of the individual in is rational-ethical. From here the basic religious requirement consists not in carrying out traditional precepts, and in making actions according to characteristic reason, to do "good deeds".

     At the same time on Weber reason (rationality) and kindly (ethical) were not identical concepts. Concepts rational and ethical have appeared coinciding only in one relation and dispersing in other.

     At the same time one of the main difficulties of Weber's position consisted that these two moments, rational and ethical, anywhere up to the end have not been dissolved by it.

     Just as rational-ethical type of consciousness has forked at Weber on formal-rational basis and "ethics of fraternal affection", magically-traditional consciousness forks on "irrational charisma" and "is relative-rational" tradition. And just as "formal ratio" becomes in effect hostile to "evangelical ethics", like this "charismatic gifted person" potentially becomes force which in a condition to destroy tradition as charismatic - the revolutionary beginning appears to the opposed is conservative-traditional installations.

     Thus, we can allocate three high light or "centre" round which Weber's thought concentrated:

     1) "ethics of fraternal affection" ("kindly", "pure sense");

     2) released from any values and become to purely functional "reason", the formal rationality;

     3) the is spontaneous-ecstatic beginning, charisma, a basis of magic religions (irrational force, spontaneous "power").

     Clearly, that all these three beginnings are ideal types which in an empirical reality in the pure state do not act. At the same time there is no doubt and that all three types represent the basic values which in outlook of Weber as gravitate to each other and each other resist, as the ideal types concentrated according to them.

     For clearing of this situation it is possible to use F. Nietzsche’s saying: "we know today not only that something can be fine though it is not kind, but also that it is fine in what it not kindly". In this plan polytheism is, "eternal struggle of gods" - M.Weber's world outlook basis. Reconciliation of conflicting values, on Weber, is impossible. He notices that no scientific thinking, any philosophical analysis can find enough bases for preference of one group of values another.

     Weber wrote: "As think to oneself of possibility of a "scientific" choice between values of the French and German cultures - I do not know it. Here too dispute of various gods, and spores eternal... And the destiny, but at all a science dominates over these gods and their struggle". Continuing the reasonings, Weber asks a question: what person will venture "scientifically to deny" ethics of the Sermon on the Mount, for example, a precept "do not oppose to harm" or a parable about the person substituting the left and right cheek?

     And it is meanwhile clear that here if to look at it from the wordly point of view, the ethics demanding refusal of self-respect are preached. It is necessary, Weber underlined, to choose between religious advantage which is given by these ethics, and the man's advantage which ethics preach something absolutely other:" Oppose to harm, you will bear differently the share of responsibility if it overcomes ". Depending on terminating installation of the individual one of these ethical positions proceeds from a devil, and another - from god, and the individual should solve, who for it - god and who - a devil. So Weber concludes the thought.

     It is necessary to notice that this polytheism at level of "last values" Weber has inherited from Nietzsche, has inherited as the requirement of severe and courageous aspiration to knowledge of true what that was. To this tradition as researchers consider, there ascends also a deep belief that the true, most likely, is terrible and cruel, than is consolatory. From here Weber's original "love to destiny" how last was cruel. 
 
 

     It is necessary to see and that at Weber "contention and struggle" the initial and primary condition, reconciliation - is conditional and secondary. This arrangement deeply rooting in the spirit of the majority of Protestant thinkers makes the base as well Weber's outlook. As it was marked by the contemporary of Weber, the German philosopher M. Scheler (1874-1928), absence of "the average term", the moment of mediation which could soften extreme measures is peculiar to Weber's thinking.

     He wrote: "it is characteristic that among all categories of the spiritual relation to the world to this thinker, who has created such riches of categories, one is least familiar - I mean a wisdom category..." "Wisdom, - continued M. Scheler's thought, - not only it is alien rough, heroic, always thirsting a maximum" strained "to internal life of its person, type of a wise man and the way of knowledge peculiar to wisdom, remained for it not noticed as well in the history". On Scheler, in the exception of wisdom in which smothering finds comprehended, a transient equilibrium of the forces, it so true German, however also the true Protestant.

     Certainly, value of Weber as one of the largest sociologists of the XX century, it would be impossible to explain if we have stopped only on fixing of that circumstance that it on the spirit the Protestant. Here, probably, it is necessary to recognise that that social reality which this type of activity would be formed, have appeared for Europe much more universal, than it would be possible to assume that type of the relation to the validity which is characteristic for Protestantism.

     Development of capitalism has made universal vital installation of Protestantism. It is possible to tell with confidence that huge value of work of Weber "Protestant ethics and spirit of capitalism" consists that it the first has fixed the universal value of Protestantism for capitalist development of the West. Besides, it is simultaneous through comparison with Protestantism has revealed character of rationality as fundamental principle of an industrial society.

     Thus, thinking of Weber’s Protestantism has given arrangement and specific vision of the modern situation in development of the western society. The same vision was; as consider P.P. Gaidenko and Y. Davidov, division of Weber's thinking as, considerably having dissolved contrasts, it has not found between them the connecting bridge, and, hence, and an overcoming the crisis.

     To this we can add R.Aron's words that a today's industrial society not what was known by Weber. It not so especially bourgeois, not purely capitalist if last to define, first of all, character of the property and the initiative of the individual businessman. From these reasons as the French sociologist and one of analysts of creativity of Weber writes, "I will try to state the critic to Weber - it was too the Marxist in the interpretation of the modern society, that is unduly pessimistic; it could not catch precisely prospect of well-being which bears to weights manufacture growth, and has not seen probability of softening class and, probably, national conflicts..."

     At the same time, on R.Aron, "the person, the philosophy, political views of Weber show... That Max Weber - our contemporary. It is it first of all its creativity, as well as all great thinkers, so richly and ambiguously that each new generation reads it, studies and interprets differently".

     In the conclusion of a statement of theoretical views of M.Weber we will result full of deep sense endurance from K. Yasper's speech, said before students of the Heidelberg university at mourning session on July, 17th 1920: "It is impossible to understand Max Webera, having read one of its works, and, especially some formulas characterising it; to understand that it is possible if to get acquainted with all fragments belonging to it, scientific works, journal articles, records, letters and with its heritage, and also with simple, avaricious messages on his life and activity, its manner of behaviour. In this set of fragments, undoubtedly, there will be" a unity not formulated and not rational, but given in contemplation: idea philosophical existence. This idea, absolute, general and timeless what it is in last depth of life, he has shown to us in the modern world in its especial, original display ".

     In the German historiography connected with the analysis of a sociological science, it is noticed directly that "though this surprising person has died in 1920, his influence has started to affect basically ' during our epoch.

     Weber's sociology of religion is subordinated to research of social action of people. Max Weber wanted to reveal communication between religious - ethical principles and behaviour of individuals, especially their economic and political activity. In his opinion, the behaviour of people can be accepted only taking into account their representations about value of religious dogmas. Unlike the Marxists bringing as central attention to the question on an origin of religion and its substances, Weber places emphasis on principal views of senses of religious principles which cause this or that behaviour of the person, presence in it of rationality elements.

     Thus as criterion for typological principal views of "sense" he had purposeless action. So, analyzing various forms of religious life, Weber by empirical supervision and comparisons fixes, where prevails ritual - cult beginning, somewhere mystically - contemplate, and somewhere ascetically - rational. It has given to him the reason at first to put forward a hypothesis, and then to draw a conclusion that there is a communication between religious beliefs and behaviour (first of all economic) and that that religion in which the rationalistic beginning prevails, promotes formation of a rational social order.