Types of phrases in English and Ukrainian languages

Introduction

  A word-group is the largest two-facet lexical unit comprising more than one word but expressing one global concept.

  The lexical meaning of the word groups is the combined lexical meaning of the component words. The meaning of the word groups is motivated by the meanings of the component members and is supported by the structural pattern. But it’s not a mere sum total of all these meanings! Polysemantic words are used in word groups only in 1 of their meanings. These meanings of the component words in such word groups are mutually interdependent and inseparable (blind man – «a human being unable to see», blind type – «the copy isn’t readable).

  Word groups possess not only the lexical meaning, but also the meaning conveyed mainly by the pattern of arrangement of their constituents. The structural pattern of word groups is the carrier of a certain semantic component not necessarily dependent on the actual lexical meaning of its members (school grammar – «grammar which is taught in school», grammar school – «a type of school»). We have to distinguish between the structural meaning of a given type of word groups as such and the lexical meaning of its constituents.

  It is often argued that the meaning of word groups is also dependent on some extra-linguistic factors – on the situation in which word groups are habitually used by native speakers.

  Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups. One must recall that lexicology deals with words, word-forming morphemes and word-groups.

  The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may vary. Some word-groups, e.g. at least, point of view, by means, to take place, etc. seem to be functionally and semantically inseparable. They are usually described as set phrases, word-equivalents or phraseological units and are studied by the branch of lexicology which is known as phraseology. In other word-groups such as to take lessons, kind to people, a week ago, the component-members seem to possess greater semantic and structural independence. Word-groups of this type are defined as free word-groups or phrases and are studied in syntax. 

Types of Word-Groups in English and Ukrainian

  According to the existing interrelations between their immediate components all word-groups in the contrasted languages split into the following three types: 1) co-ordinate word-group 2) subordinate word-groups and 3) predicative word-groups.

  I. Co-ordinate word-groups in English and Ukrainian are formed from components equal in rank which are connected either syndetically (with the help of conjunctions) or asyndetically (by placement). For example: books and magazines; to read, translate and retell; neither this nor that, книжки й журнали; читати, перекладати й переказувати, ні те й ні се. Co-ordinate word-groups are non-binary by their nature; this means that they may include several IC's of equal rank, though not necessarily of the same lexico-grammatical nature. Cf. (They were) alone and free and happy in love. (Abrahams).

  Such and the like word-groups in both contrasted languages perform the function of homogeneous parts of the sentence, eg: There they were: stars, sun, sea, light, darkness, space, great waters. (Conrad) — Тут ними були: зірки, сонце, море, світло, темінь, простір, великі води. Не was clean, handsome, well-dressed, and sympathetic. (Dreiser). Він був чистий, гарний, прекрасно одягнений і симпатичний. It was done thoroughly, well and quickly. — Це було зроблено досконало, гарно й швидко.

  According to the structure of the ICs and their number, co-ordinate word-groups may be elemental and enlarged. Elemental word-groups consist of two components only, eg: Pete or Mike, he and she, read and translate, all but me; Піт чи Майк, він і вона, читати й перекладати, всі крім мене.

Enlarged co-ordinate word-groups consist of structurally complicated components: to read the text, to analyze it stylistically and translate it — читати текст, аналізувати його стилістично і перекладати його.

  As to the expression of sense, co-ordinate word-groups in the contrasted languages may be closed or unclosed, i. e. infinite. Closed word-groups denote some actions, objects and phenomena. They consist of two components only, eg: rivers and lakes, neither he nor she, all but me — річки й озера; ні він, ні вона; всі крім мене. Common in both languages are also the unclosed or infinite word-groups consisting of several constituent components the number of which may still be continued (as by enumerating). These constituents may be connected by means of conjunctions or asyndetically, eg: books, note-books, bags, pens and pencils; ні гори, ні гірські потоки, ні звірі чи птахи, ні рослини (не цікавили їх).

  A common means of expressing homogeneousness as well as forming co-ordinate word-groups in both languages is also intonation. Cf He speaks English, German, French, Spanish and Russian.

Явором, канупером, чебрецем, м'ятою, любистком  запахло літо (К. Гордієнко).

  II. Subordinate word-groups in all languages are binary by their nature. It means that they consist of a head component, which is the nucleus of the word-group, and of one or more adjuncts/complements. They may be either a single notional word or a group of words/word-group functionally equal to it and having the function of a notional word, eg: my pen, his "oh", your "r", her father and mother, take part in the games, bad for you, the film "They fought for their Motherland", Peter's brother, etc.

  Among the existing classifications of word-groups the morphological (paradigmatic) classification remains one of the most embracing. It is based on the lexico-grammatical nature of the head component or on its functional substitute. As a result, the following seven (according to the number of national parts of speech) common paradigmatic classes of substantival word-groups are to be singled out in English and Ukrainian:

1. Substantival Word-Groups, in which the mainly attributive adjuncts may be in pre-position or in postposition to the noun head. Their way of connection is analytical in English and synthetic in Ukrainian, though not without exceptions, as can be seen in the following table:

Table 24 

  There are noun word-groups with synthetic or analytical-synthetic connection in English as well (when the complement/adjunct is a pronoun in the objective case, eg: books for them/ for her, or when the adjunct is the demonstrative pronoun this/that, these/those, such a/such (this day — these days, such a book — such books).

Analytical (asyndetic) connection.'" N<Stative word-groups are of predicative nature in Ukrainian (cf. мені краще). 

  Consequently, the combinability of the noun as head of the substantival word-group is practically isomorphic in the contrasted languages. The only exceptions form a) the NprepVger pattern (books for reading), b) the N<Stative pattern word-group which is of attributive nature (the child ashamed the house ablaze, etc.). c) the N<Iposs.abs. pattern word-group are not available in Ukrainian since in край наш/Україно моя! both pronouns (наше and моя) are possessive conjoint but not possessive absolute which are not available in our language. Besides, the N<Stative pattern word-groups in Ukrainian are of predicative type (дитині страшно, жах бере) and not attributive as in English (the boy asleep), d) The English language has no I < Stative pattern word-groups like йому страшно, нам сором(но), etc. which present an allomorphic feature for the English language.

  No full synthetic expression of agreement or government can be observed in Ukrainian appositive word-groups like число три/числа три, поет Данте/поета Данте, поетові Данте, фільм "Вони воювали за Батьківщину", (у) фільмі "Вони воювали за Батьківщину", etc.

  Note. Pertaining to English only are also substantival word-groups with adjuncts expressed by the definite or indefinite articles, which acquire a lexical meaning in a syntaxeme, i.e. in the context. For example, in such sentences as the following:

What his sister has seen in the man Що його сестра знайшла в цьому was beyond him. (London) чоловікові, він не міг збагнути.

Не hadn't a penny. (Maugham) Він не мав жодного пенні/ламаного

шеляга.

  2. Verbal Word-Groups are also characterised in English and Ukrainian by some isomorphic and allomorphic features. Generally common in both languages are the structural types of verbal word-groups that may be: 1) with simple objective or adverbial complements; 2) with extended or expanded complements; 3) with simple or extended/expanded objective and adverbial complements. Of common pattern in both languages are verbal word-groups with pre-posed and postposed complements.

Simple unextended word-groups with the transitive verbal head include nominal and adverbial complements/adjuncts. Their pattern is common in English and Ukrainian. Cf. V<N or I, Q, A, Stative: to like books, to receive four, to love her, to prefer blue (to red), to love it to be asleep; любити книжки, отримати четвірку, кохати її, любити синє, щиро любити, почуватися краще, etc. The head verb may also be extended or expanded: to ardently love somebody (дуже любити когось), etc.

  Common are also prepositional complements in verbal word-groups of this pattern: to speak of somebody, to divide by two; говорити про когось, ділити на два (на двоє). Ukrainian has no equivalents, however, for the V<V_ing and V<V_ger English word-groups patterns as to sit reading, to like reading/being read (or having read it/the book). It has, however, the V<V_diyeprs pattern word-groups instead which are unknown in English. These are as follows: читати стоячи, іти співаючи or V_diyeprV/VP співаючи іти/іти далі (IVQD) patterns which are alien to English читаючи/прочитавши (поему/їі), гарно прочитавши, прочитаєш двічі, співаючи іти додому/здому, etc. The English equivalents of these and other verbal word-groups are participial VingD (going home, going quickly) or V<V_ger(go on reading, stop talking), etc.

  It should be pointed out, however, that unlike English, most of Ukrainian complements and adverbial adjuncts have no fixed position in the word-group. Cf. слухати музику — музику слухати, гарно співати

 —   співати гарно, вийти з лісу — з лісу вийти, сидячи читати — читати сидячи, почуватися краще — краще почуватися and consequently D<D or D>D as in гарно дуже — дуже гарно.

  Neither is the position of pre-posed complements/adjuncts fixed in Ukrainian. Cf. VprepN or prep N>V: думати про майбутнє — про майбутнє думати.

  Some English complements, when emphasised, may also change their position, eg:

to speak of whom? — Of whom to speak? to be invited by Peter

 —  by Peter to be invited?

Extended and expanded complements/adjuncts have mainly common structural patterns in the contrasted languages. Cf. V_inf < VP: to like to play the piano; любити пограти на піаніно; V_inf<V_inf co-cj V_inf<N: to like to read and translate a passage; любити читати й перекладати текст. In other words, the verbal head may have a VP structure.

  Allomorphism is observed in the nature of some complements (gerundial, infinitival, participial) which often form predicative complexes in English verbal word-groups, eg: V_inf prepN<V: to wait for Ann to read; V_infprep N'sVger: to rely on Bob's reading the article; Vinf<DV<N<Vin_g< D: to go down to see the boy waiting outside. Similarly in Ukrainian: зайти додому взяти книжку заховану десь.

  3. Adjectival Word-Groups. Due to the restricted combinability of different notionals with the adjectival head, this paradigmatic class of word-groups has a much smaller number (and varieties) of structural models. The most productive and usual in English and Ukrainian are the following simple and extended models with different dependent components.

  Allomorphic, і. е. pertaining to English only are adjectival word-groups with gerundial complements (A<V_ger), eg: worth reading (being read): A<VgerN(P): worth reading the book; AprepN(I)V_ger: proud of Pete/ him being decorated, proud of his having been invited.

Apart from the non-existence of gerundial complements, Ukrainian adjectival word-groups are characterised by some other features of their own. Among these, for example, is the free location of most of adjectival and complements adjuncts which is absolutely impossible in English. Cf. дуже добра — добра дуже; радий чути — чути радий; значно молодший за мене — за мене значно молодший, добрий до всіх - до всіх добрий.

  Nevertheless, it is impossible to change the order or position of any immediate constituent as in the word-groups like багато молодший, ніж вона but not* ніж вона, багато молодший, though the pattern can not be considered completely ungrammatical for a predominantly synthetic language, like Ukrainian either.

  Ukrainian head adjectives, however, express the morphological categories of number, case and gender which is impossible in English. Cf. гарний зовні, гарна зовні, гарні зовні; гарної/гарній зовні, гарною зовні; добрий/добрим до всіх; рідна/рідної для нас, etc.

  4. Pronominal Word-Groups in the contrasted languages have some general features in common. Thus, most often the heads are indefinite, negative and mostly demonstrative pronouns, and much rarer personal and reflexive pronouns. The usually common adjuncts in both languages are pronouns, prepositional nouns, adjectives or adjectival word-groups, infinitives, verbal word-groups and subordinate clauses. The most common place of these adjuncts is postposition, though in Ukrainian they may be used in preposition as well. Besides, Ukrainian pronouns are all declinable. Cf. ми всі — нас усіх — нам усім — нами всіма; хто з учнів — 'кого з учнів — кому з учнів/з них.

  Pronominal word-groups, however, are formed in both languages according to some common structural models/patterns. For example A characteristic/allomorphic feature of Ukrainian pronominal word-groups is their considerably free position within the pattern which is never possible in English. Cf. щось нове — нове щось, нічого казати — казати нічого, дехто з учнів — з учнів дехто.

  5. Numerical word-groups form a separate group in the English and Ukrainian languages as well. They can not and should not be neglected or avoided, since they have in English and Ukrainian some isomorphic and allomorphic features of their own. Despite all this some grammarians often avoid even mentioning the numerical word-groups [39; 15; 3], whose existence in English and Ukrainian can not be overlooked. This morphological class of word-groups has the following combinability with other parts of speech:

  As can be observed from the given above paradigmatic models of numerical word-groups, only one of them is missing in English - that one which is presented in Ukrainian by the Q<N(I) model (багато часу, мало нас), etc., since much or many are not numerals in English.

One more characteristic feature of most Ukrainian numerical word groups (except those with the sub-clauses) is their considerably free permutation (change of place) of the immediate constituents, which is impossible in English word-groups of the same structural models. Cf. двох з того класу — з того класу двох; перший співати — співати перший; п'ятий із тих попереду — із тих попереду п'ятий; чимало грошей — грошей чимало, etc.