Автор: Пользователь скрыл имя, 05 Марта 2013 в 21:41, доклад
Main units of Grammar are a word and a sentence. A word may be divided into morphemes, a sentence may be divided into phrases (word-groups). A morpheme, a word, a phrase and a sentence are units of different levels of language structure. A unit of a higher level consists of one or more units of a lower level.
So the wide divergence of views on the number of oblique moods can be accounted for:
a) by different approaches to the problem of polysemy/homonymy;
b) by the absence of mutual relation between meaning and form.
In the system of the indicative mood time may be denoted absolutely (tense) and relatively (order, posteriority). In the system of the subjunctive mood time may be denoted relatively (order, prospect). Perfect forms denote priority, non-perfect forms - simultaneousness with regard to other actions. The category of order may acquire the meaning of the category of tense.
17. The dual nature of non-finite forms of the verb. Morphological categories of verbals.
The main division inside the verb is that between the finite verbs (finites) and non-finite verbs (verbals). Through the opposition of finite and non-finite forms the category of finitude is revealed. Finites present marked and intensive member of the opposition. Non-finite forms present unmarked and extensive member of the opposition.
Verbals possess some verbal and some non-verbal features. Lexically verbals do not differ from finite forms. Grammatically non-finites may denote a secondary action or a process related to that expressed by the finite verb.
The finites can be subdivided into 3 systems - moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive.
The verbids can be subdivided into 3 systems: infinitive, gerund, participle.
Formal morphological characteristics. Verbals possess the verb categories of voice, perfect, and aspect. They lack the categories of person, number, mood, and tense. None of the forms have morphological features of non-verbal parts of speech, neither nominal, adjectival or adverbial.
Combinability and functions. Non-verbal character of verbals reveals itself in their syntactical functions. Thus, the infinitive and the gerund perform the main syntactical functions of the noun, which are those of subject, object and predicative. Participle I functions as attribute, predicative and adverbial modifier; participle II as attribute and predicative. They cannot form a predicate by themselves, although unlike non-verbal parts of speech they can function as part of a compound verbal predicate.
Verbals may combine with nouns functioning as direct, indirect, or prepositional objects, with adverbs and prepositional phrases used as adverbial modifiers, and with subordinate clauses. Non-finites may also work as link verbs, combining with nouns, adjectives or statives as predicatives, as in. They may also act as modal verb semantic equivalents when combined with an infinitive. All non-finite verb forms may participate in the so-called predicative constructions.
The infinitive has the verb categories of voice (to praise – to be praised), order (to keep – to have kept) and aspect (to bring – to be bringing).
The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. Morphologically the verbal character of the gerund is manifested in the categories of voice and order.
Participle is a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and adverbial features. The verbal character of participle is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice and order.
18. Finite and non-finite forms of the verb. The category of representation.
The main division inside the verb is that between the finite verbs (finites) and non-finite verbs (verbals).
The finites can be subdivided into 3 systems - moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive.
The verbids can be subdivided into 3 systems: infinitive, gerund, participle.
The category of representation (A.I. Smirnitsky) is the opposition of finite and non-finite forms. The category of representation is revealed through 3 categorial forms:
The leading form of the category of representation is verbal representation, that is personal forms.
L.S.Barkhudarov: The category of representation = the category of finitude. The category of finitude (representation) is based on predicativity.
19. Phrase. Principles of classification (H.Sweet, O.Jespersen, L.Bloomfield)
A narrower definition: a phrase is a unity of 2 or more notional words. A wider definition: phrase - any syntactic group of words. Phrases may be built by:
- combining notional words (out of),
- notional and functional words (in the corner),
- functional words (out of).
Notional phrases are more independent structurally and semantically, other types function as part of notional phrases. A phrase is naming unit. A phrase may have a system of forms. Each component of a phrase may undergo grammatical changes without destroying the identity of the phrase. The naming function of the phrase distinguishes it from the sentence, whose main function is communicative. Therefore the structure N+V is traditionally excluded from phrases. A phrase is usually smaller than a sentence, but it may also function as a sentence (N+V), and it may be larger than a sentence, as the latter may consist of one word.
Phrases may be classified partly by their inner structure (syntactic relations between the components, morphological expression and position of components, or by order and arrangement) and partly by their external functioning (distribution, functions of the components).
The components of the phrase can be connected by different types of syntactic relations. H.Sweet: the most general type of relation is that of the modifier and modified (headword and adjunct), or the relation of subordination. He also distinguished the relation of coordination.
The syntactic theory of O.Jespersen can be applied to phrases and sentences. The theory of three ranks is based on the principle of determination. In the word-group a furiously3 barking2 dog1 1 is independent and is called a primary, 2 modifies 1 and is called a secondary, 3 modifies 2 and is called a tertiary. A secondary may be joined to a primary in two ways: junction and nexus. These terms are used to differentiate between attributive and predicative relations (relations between the subject and the predicate), or the relations of subordination and interdependence.
The structural theory of word-groups (L.Bloomfield), divides word-groups into two main types: endocentric (headed) and exocentric (non-headed). The criteria for distinguishing between them are distribution and substitution. .An endocentric group has the same position as its headword: An old man came in. - A man came in.
The distribution of an exocentric group differs from the distribution of its components: A man came in.
20. Classification of phrases according to the types of syntactic relations between the constituents.
The structural theory of word-groups (descriptive linguistics) divides word-groups into two main types: endocentric (headed) and exocentric (non-headed). The criteria for distinguishing between them are distribution and substitution. An endocentric group has the same position as its headword. The distribution of an exocentric group differs from the distribution of its components.
3 types of syntactic relations within word-groups: subordination, coordination, interdependence. Accordingly, phrases are usually classified into subordinate, coordinate and predicative. Sometimes a fourth type, appositive phrases, is mentioned.
Subordination:
1) agreement (concord);
2) government;
3) adjoinment;
4) enclosure.
21. Predicativity. Predication. Constructions with secondary predication.
The communicative function of the sentence distinguishes it from phrases and words, which have one function – naming.
Predicativity - the correlation of the thought expressed in the sentence with the situation of speech. Its components are modality, time and person, expressed by the categories of mood, tense and person.
Means of expressing predicativity: predicate verb, subject-predicate group (predication), intonation. Predication constitutes the basic structure of the sentence. A sentence may contain primary and secondary predication. I heard someone singing. The group someone singing is called the secondary predication, as it resembles the subject-predicate group (= the primary predication), structurally and semantically: it consists of two main components, nominal and verbal, and names an event or situation. But it cannot be correlated with reality directly and cannot constitute an independent unit of communication, as verbals have no categories of mood, tense and person. The secondary predication is related to the situation of speech indirectly, through the primary predications.
22. Syntactic structure of the claus (simple sentence). The model of the members of the sentence.
The process of analysing sentences into their parts, or constituents, is known as parsing.
The syntactic structure of the sentence can be analysed at 2 levels: pre-functional (constituents are words and word-groups) and functional (constituents are parts of the sentence).
Parts of the sentence are notional sentence constituents which are in certain syntactic relations to other constituents or to the sentence as a whole.
Parts of the sentence:
1) principal parts of the sentence - the predication (the basic structure of the sentence),
2) secondary parts of the sentence extend or expand the basic structure.
Parts of the sentence are notional constituents: they name elements of events or situations denoted by the sentence: actions, states, participants and circumstances. The formal properties of parts of the sentence are the type of syntactic relations and the morphological expression.
Principal parts of the sentence are interdependent. The subject is structural centre of the sentence. The predicate agrees with the subject in person and number. The predicate is the semantic and communicative centre of the sentence.
Secondary parts of the sentence are modifiers of principal and other secondary parts: attributes are noun-adjuncts, objects and adverbial modifiers are primarily verb adjuncts. Besides the three “traditional” secondary parts, two more are singled out: the apposition and the objective predicative.
Accordingly to the structure parts of the sentence:
The model of parts of the sentence shows the basic relations of notional sentence constituents. It does not show the linear order of constituents.
23. Structural models of sentence analysis. Distributional model and types of distribution. IC-model.
Methods of of structural linguistics are based on the notions of position, co-occurrence and substitution (substitutability).
The total set of environments of a certain element is its distribution. The term distribution denotes the occurrence of an element relative to other elements. Elements may be in:
1) non-contrastive distribution (the same position, no difference in meaning; variants of the same element): hoofs - hooves;
2) contrastive distribution (the same position, different meanings): She is charming. She is charmed.
3) complementary distribution (mutual exclusiveness of pairs of forms in a certain environment; the same meaning, different positions; variants of the same element): cows - oxen.
The distributional model (Ch.Fries) shows the linear order of sentence constituents. The syntactic structure of the sentence is presented as a sequence of positional classes of words. Showing the linear order of classes of words the model does not show the syntactic relations of sentence constituents. It does not show the ambiguity of sentence.
This drawback is overcome by the IC-model. A sentence is a structured string of words, grouped into phrases. So sentence constituents are words and word-groups. The basic principle for grouping words into phrases (endo- or exocentric) is cohesion, or the possibility to substitute one word for the whole group without destroying the sentence structure. The sentence is built by 2 immediate constituents: NP+VP, each of which may have constituents of its own. Constituents which cannot be further divided are called ultimate (UC). The IС model exists in 2 main versions: the analytical model and the derivation tree. The analytical model divides the sentence into IC-s and UC-s. The derivation tree shows the syntactic dependence of sentence constituents.
So the IC-model shows both the syntactic relations and the linear order of elements.
24. Transformational model of sentence analysis. Types of transformation.
Different sentence types are structurally and semantically related. So the syntactic structure of a given sentence may be described by making these relations explicit. Sentences, in which all constituents are obligatory, are called basic structures (= elementary sentences = kernel sentences). Linguists single out from 2 to 7 kernel sentences: 1) NV 2) NVN 3) NVPrepN 4) N is N 5) N is A 6) N is Adv. 7) N is PrepN. The structure of all other sentences is a result of certain transformations of kernel structures. This analysis, showing derivational relations of sentences, is called transformational (N.Chomsky). TM is based on IC-model and it goes further showing semantic and syntactic relations of different sentence types. TM describes paradigmatic relations of basic and derived structures, or the relations of syntactic derivation. Kernel sentences, which serve as the base for deriving other structures, are called deep (= underlying structures), opposed to surface structures of derived sentence types (= transforms). So both the deep and the surface structure belong to the syntactic level of analysis.
Transformations may be subdivided into intramodel = single-base (changing the kernel structure) and two-base (combining 2 structures).
Single-base transformations:
1) modifying the kernel structure: She is working hard. → She is not working hard
2) changing the kernel structure: (2) She is working hard. → Her working hard. → Her hard work.
Some basic types of intramodel transformations:
1) substitution, deletion: Have you seen him? → Seen him?;
2) permutation or movement: He is here. → Is he here?;
3) nominalization: He arrived → His arrival;
4) two-base transformations:
- embedding: know that he has come,
- word-sharing: saw him cross the street.
TM shows that sentences with different surface structures paraphrase, because they are derived from the same deep structure: He arrived → his arrival → for him to arrive → his arriving.
TM shows that some sentences are ambiguous, because they derive from distinct deep structures: Flying planes can be dangerous. → 1. Planes are dangerous. 2. Flying is dangerous. So TM is an effective method of deciding grammatical ambiguity.
A grammar which operates using TM is a transformational grammar (TG). In TG the IC-analysis is supplemented with rules for transforming one sentence into another. TG became an extremely influental type of generative grammatical theory, also called generative grammar.
25. Semantic structure of the sentence (Ch. Fillmore).
Generative semantics. Case Grammar.
In Case Grammar deep (underlying) structure is semantic and surface structure is syntactic. Deep structure has 2 main constituents:
1) modality (features of mood, tense, aspect, negation, relating to the sentence as a whole);
2) proposition (a tenseless set of relationships): “S → M + Pr”.
The proposition is constituted by the semantic predicate (the central element) and some nominal elements, called arguments or participants: “P → V + N1 + N2 + N3 …” The proposition is a reflection of situations and events of the outside world. The semantic predicate determines the number of arguments, or opens up places for arguments. Accordingly we may distinguish
- one-place predicates (She sang),
- two-place predicates (She broke the dish) and so on.
Arguments are in different semantic relations to the predicate. These relations are called semantic roles or deep cases (P+V+C1+C2+C3 ...). The choice of semantic roles depends on the nature of the predicate.
W.Chafe divides predicates into
1) states
2) non-states (events):
- actions
- processes:
1. The wood is dry. - state
2. She sang. (What did she do?) - action
3. The wood dried. (What happened?) - process.
Semantic roles (deep cases) are judgements about the events.
The most general roles are agent (doer of the action) and patient (affected by the action or state). Actions are accompanied by agents and states. Processes - by patients. Predicates, denoting both actions and processes - by agents and patients: She broke the dish.
The original set of deep cases includes 6 cases (by Ch.Fillmore): agentive, objective, beneficiary, instrument, locative, factitive. E.g.: 1. He dug the ground. (Objective). 2. He dug a hole. (Factitive). Sentences (1) and (2) have the same surface structure, but different deep structure.
On the other hand different syntactic structures may refer to the same deep structure:
1. John opened the door with the key.
2. The door was opened by John.
3. John used the key to open the door.
4. The key opened the door.
26. Communicative structure of the sentence.
Communicative structure of the sentence refers to the way the speaker structures the information, the way he identifies the relative importance of utterance parts. Usually the utterance consists of 2 parts:
Some sentences contain only the rheme, they are monorhematic: It is getting dark. In the majority of sentences the constituents are either rhematic or thematic. There are also transitional elements. Sentences containing the theme and the rheme are called dirhematic.
Thematic elements are indicated by the definite article, loose parenthesis, detached parts of the sentence; rhematic elements - by the indefinite article, particles, negations, emphatic constructions. But in the majority of sentences the rheme is also placed at the end, which is achieved by changing the syntactic structure of the sentence.
Means of preserving the progressive information structure:
1) passive transformations,
2) the use of conversives,
3) the use of the personal subject and the nominal predicate.
Means of making the subject rhematic:
1) the constructions there is/there are, it is necessary,
2) inversion.
Thematic elements contribute little to the meaning of the utterance as they reflect what has already been communicated: they have the lowest degree of communicative dynamism (CD). Rhematic elements, containing new information which advances the communicative process have the highest degree of CD.
27. Functions of word order in English and types of inversion.
Words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order, which is fixed for every type of the sentence, and is therefore meaningful. Modern English is characterized by a rigid word-order in accordance with which the subject of declarative sentences, as a rule, precedes the predicate. This is the so-called direct order of words.
The most common pattern for the arrangement of the main parts in a declarative sentence is Subject - Predicate - (Object), which is called direct word order.
An unusual position of any part of the sentence may be treated as inversion in the broad sense of the word. There is 2 structural types of inversion: full (predicate + subject) and partial (auxiliary verb (operator) + subject + notional part).
The main functions of word order.
1. Grammatical function expresses grammatical relations. Peter saw John.
Cases of inversion:
Full inversion marks the second part of a sentence of proportional agreement (not obligatory) The more he thought of it, the less clear was the matter.
Partial inversion is used