Theory of english grammar

The theory of limited cases may be more seriously justified: Case is a morphological category, revealing relations of the noun in the sentence. These relations must be rendered through the form of the noun itself. All other means (word order or prepositions) are not morphological means. That’s why they can’t be treated as case forms.

If we recognize the existence of cases in English, there is one more problem: terminology. The term Possessive can’t be applied to all the cases, the meaning of the case is broader than pure possession:

e.g. children’s book - destination

Peter’s kindness - a bearer of some quality

Peter’s friend- social relations

a mile’s walk, an hour’s delay – measure, quantity

a chemist’s – locative meaning

Peter’s voice – partitive relations

Peter’s insistence – Subjective Genitive

the Titanic’s tragedy – Objective Genitive

an officer’s cap - qualification

evening’s newspapers, Moscow’s talks, winter’s rest – adverbial relations.

 

 

10. The category of article determination.

Many scholars recognize the category of definiteness/mdefiniteness (article determination). Though the article is used as the morphological marker of the noun, it can hardly be treated as a word-morpheme. The position of the article may be occupied by other words (demonstrative and possessive pronouns, etc.). Words, which have a distribution including the article position, are called determiners. The role of determiners is to specify the range of reference of the noun by making it definite or indefinite.

Meaningful absence of the article (zero article), presupposes generalization.

In discussing the use of the articles it is essential to distinguish between specific, or particular reference, and generic reference (R.Quirk et al.):

Tlhe telephone is broken. (Specific reference)

The telephone is useful. (Generic reference)

The distinctions, which are important for countable nouns with specific reference, disappear with generic reference:

1) A telephone is useful.

2) The telephone is useful.

3) Telephones are useful.

The article plays an important role in structuring information. It is one of the means of distinguishing between facts already known (the theme) and new information (the rheme). The definite article is the marker of the theme, the indefinite article is the marker of the rheme.

Certain determiners (articles, demonstrative pronouns) can be used to show that a noun phrase is referentially equivalent to a previous noun-phrase. In such cases the article expresses co-reference, which is one of the means of sentence-connection.

 

 

11. Adjective. The category of degrees of comparison.

Adjective is a part of speech characterized by the following typical features:

- the lexico-grammatical meaning of “attributes (of substantives)”.

- the morphological category of the degrees of comparison.

- the characteristic combinability with nouns, link verbs, adverbs.

-the stem-building affixes -ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -ive, -ic, un-, pre-, in-, etc.

- Its functions of an attribute and a predicative complement.

Classification of adjectives.

With regard to the category of the degrees of comparison adjectives fall under 2 lexico-grammatical subclasses: comparables and non-comparables. The nucleus of the latter is composed of derived adjectives like wooden, Crimean, mathematical, etc. Theses adjectives are called relative as distinct from all other adjectives called qualitative.

Most qualitative adjectives build up opposemes of comparison, but some do not:

- adjectives that in themselves express the highest degree of a quality: supreme;

- those having the suffix –ish which indicates the degree of quality: reddish;

- those denoting qualities which are not compatible with the idea of comparison: deaf, dead.

The category of degrees of comparis:

The category of the degrees of comparison of adjectives is the system of opposemes (long – longer – longest) showing qualitative distinctions of qualities. More exactly it shows whether the adjective denotes the property of some substance absolutely, or relatively as a higher or the highest amount of the property in comparison with that of some other substances.

‘Positive’, ‘comparative’ and ‘superlative’ degrees.

The positive degree is not marked. We may speak of a zero morpheme. The comparative and superlative degrees are built up either synthetically (by affixation or suppletivity) or analytically (with the help of word-morphemes more and most), which depends mainly on the structure of the stem.

Some authors treat more beautiful and the most beautiful not as analytical forms, but as free syntactical combinations of adverbs and adjectives. One of the arguments is that less and least form combinations with adjectives similar to those with more and most: e.g. more beautiful – less beautiful, the most beautiful – the least beautiful.

In order to prove that more beautiful is an analytical form of the comparative degree, we have to prove that more is a grammatical word-morpheme identical with the morpheme -er.

More an –er are identical as their meaning of ‘a higher degree’. Their distribution is complementary. Together they cover all the adjectives having the degrees of comparison. Those adjectives which have comparative opposites with suffix –er have usually no parallel opposites with more and vice versa.

Less and –er have different, even opposite meanings. The distribution of –er and less is not complementary. One and the same lexical morpheme regularly attaches both less and –er: prettier – less pretty, safer – less safe.

Besides, unlike more, less is regularly replaced by not so: less pretty = not so pretty.

These facts show that more in more beautiful is a grammatical word-morpheme identical with the morpheme –er of the comparative degree grammeme а more beautiful is an analytical form.

A new objection is raised in the case of the superlative degree. In the expression a most interesting theory the indefinite article is used whereas a prettiest child is impossible а there is some difference between the synthetic superlative and the analytical one.

One must not forget that more and most are not only word-morphemes of comparison. They can be notional words. They are polysemantic and polyfunctional words. One of the meanings of most is ‘very, exceedingly’ (a most interesting book).

The notional word more in the meaning ‘to greater extent’ can also be used to modify adjectives, as in It’s more grey than brown. More grey here is a combination of words.

The positive degree does not convey the idea of comparison. Its meaning is absolute. Jespersen: the positive degree is, a matter of fact, negative in relation to comparison.

The comparative degree and the superlative degree are both relative in meaning (Peter is older than Mary – Peter is not old).

Statives. Among the words signifying properties of a nounal referent there is a leximic set which claims to be recognied as a separate part of speech, a class of words different form the adjectives in its class-forming features. These are words built up by the prefix a- and denoting different states, mostly of temporary duration. Here belong lexemes like afraid, agog, adrift, ablaze. These are treated as predicative adjectives in traditional grammar. Statives are ‘adlinks’ (on analogy with adverbs), they are opposed to adjectives

 

 

12. The category of tense.

3 basic categories of the verb: aspect, correlation and voice. They are constituted by 2 forms of the verb – analytical and non-analytical. The categories of mood, tense and person are basically different. They are characteristic of only finite forms of the verb. The category of tense, being a predicative category, differs from other categories in its structure, grammatical meaning and its syntactic function because it is connected with the essence of the speech act, with interpersonal relations.

The opposition of past and present is not the opposition of just 2 verbal forms but the opposition of 2 systems of forms:

Present:	Past:
works	worked
is working	was working
has worked	had worked
has been working	had been working
is going to work	was going to work
is to work	was to work

Functionally all the forms, entering these two systems, are the same. They’re used in the syntactic function of the predicate in the sentence. But in speech in the plane of communication the present forms reveal their specific character: they reflect facts and evens as actual, immediately related to the participants of the speech act. On the contrary, the forms of the past reflect something that is already the past, history, not immediately related to the participants of the speech act. What is represented by the past forms is of some cognitive interest to the addressee.

If we admit that the tense forms of the present express reality and make the information actual for the participants of the speech act, it is possible then to account for the rule ‘in clauses of time and condition forms of the present are used instead of the future’ (though the verb expresses a future action). The same is relevant for the use of the forms of the present in object clauses after the verbs with the meaning know, learn, find, imagine, see (that), look, take care, mind, etc.:

The problem of the future tense: will+Infinitive.

- An instant or spontaneous decision to do something.

- Predictions of a general character

- Requests, promises, threats, offering help, etc.

Other ways to express a future action: Present Continuous, going to.

 

 

13. The category of order.

In Modern English there are also special forms for expressing relative priority - perfect forms. Perfect forms express both the time (actions preceding a certain moment) and the way the action is shown to proceed (the connection of the action with the. indicated moment in its results or consequences). So the meaning of the perfect forms is constituted by.two semantic components: temporal (priority) and aspeetive (result, current relevance). That is why perfect forms have been treated as tense-forms or aspect-forms (come - has come; is coming - has been coming).

Members of these oppositions are not opposed either as tenses or as aspects (members of each opposition express the same tense and aspect). These oppositions reveal the category of order (correlation, retrospect, taxis).

Tense and order are closely connected, but they are different categories, revealed through different oppositions: comes – came; comes - has come. The fact that the verbals have the category of order (to come - to have come, coming - having come) and have no category of tense also shows the difference of these categories.

The meaning of perfect forms may be influenced by the lexical meaning of the verb (limtive/unlimitive), tense-form, context and other factors.

 

 

14. The category of aspect.

English verb have special forms for expressing actions in progress, going on at a definite moment or period of time, i.e. for expressing limited duration - continuous forms.

Continuous forms have been traditionally treated as tense forms (definite, expanded, progressive) or as tense-aspect forms.

Members of the opposition are not opposed as tenses (tense is the same). They show different character of an action, the way in which the action is experienced or regarded: as a mere fact or as taken in progress. The opposition common-continuous reveals the category of aspect.

Tense and aspect are ciosely connected, but they are different categories, revealed through different oppositions: comes — came; comes — is coming.

The fact that the Infinitive has the category of aspect (to come — to be coming) and has no category of tense also shows, that these are different categories.

The category of _asgect is closely connected with the lexical meaning. R.Quirk divides the verbs into dynamic (having the category of aspect) and stative (disallowing the continuous form). Stative verbs denote perception, cognition and certain relations: see, know, like, belong. Dynamic verbs may be terminative (limitive), denoting actions of limited duration: close, break, come, and durative (unlimitive), denoting actions of unlimited duration: walk, read, write, shine. With durative verbs the aspect opposition may be neutralized.

 

So temporal relations in Modem English are expressed by three categories:

1) tense (present - past),

2) prospect (future - non-future),

3) order (perfect - non-perfect)/

The central category, tense, is proper to finite forms only. Categories denoting time relatively, embrace both unites and verbals.

The character of an action is expressed by two categories: aspect (common - continuous) and order.

 

15. The category of voice.

The category of voice is revealed through the binary opposition “active - passive” (love - is loved). Voice denotes the direction of an action as viewed by the speaker.

Voice is a morphological category but it has a distinct syntactic, significance. Active voice has obligatory connections with the doer of the action. Passive voice has - with the object of the action.

In the active construction the semantic and the grammatical subject coincide. In the passive construction the grammatical subject is the object of the action.

The direction of the action may be also expressed lexically, and the lexical and the grammatical meaning may or may not coincide.

The category of voice characterizes both finite forms and verbals: to love - to be loved; loving - being loved.

Participle I may be also opposed to participle II: loving - loved (active - passive). But participle II may also have perfect meaning: writing - written (non-perfect - perfect). Meanings rendered by participle II depend on transitivity/intransilivity and teminativity/durativity.

The category of voice is closelv connected with lexico-syntectic properties of verbs. According to the number and character of valencies verbs fall into subjective and objective, the latter being transitive and intransitive. In English all objective verbs havejhe category of voice. Transitivity in English it is a property of the lexico-semantic variant of the verb.

The main difficulty in defining the number of voices in modern English is the absence of direct correspondence between meaning and form. Three more voices have been suggested in addition to active and passive:

1. Reflexive: He hurt himself.

2. Reciprocal: They greeted each other.

3. Middle: The door opened.

Passive constructions in English are used more frequently than in Russian. In English not only transitive but also intransitive objective verbs have the category of voice. Here belong:

1. Ditransitive verbs with 2 direct objects.

2. Ditransitive verbs with the direct and the indirect object.

3. Verbs taking a prepositional object.

4. Phraseological units of the type to take care of, to set fire to, to lose sight of.

4. Some intransitive subjective verbs followed by prepositional phrases.

5. The combination be + participle II may denote a state as a result of the previous action.

A.I.Smirnitsky: passive constructions have corresponding active constructions: Tables are usually made of wood. - People, usually make tables of wood. But the sentence “The table is made of wood” has no parallel active construction. The combination be+participle II, denoting state, is a compound nominal predicate. Likewise the combination get (become) + participle II is a compound nominal predicate and not the form of the passive voice: got married, became influenced.

 

 

16. The category of mood.

The category of mood denotes modality or the relation of the contents of the utterance to reality as viewed by the speaker. Modality is a wide notion which characterises every sentence.

Means of expressing modality: lexical (modal verbs), lexico-grammatical (modal words), morphological (mood), syntactic (structure of the sentence), phonetic (intonation). Linguists distinguish between objective modality (expressed by mood-forms) and subjective modality (expressed by lexical and lexico-grammatical means). The category of mood is proper to finit forms of the verb. It is closely connected with the syntactic function of the predicate. The category is revealed both in the opposition of forms and syntactic structures. So the category of Mood has a strong syntactic significance.

Linguists distinguish from 2 to 16 moods in Modem English. The reasons are as follows:

1. The category of mood is in the state of development. Some forms have a limited sphere of use (he, be), new forms are coming into the system (let).

2. There is no direct correspondence of meaning and form. There are no special forms for expressing unreal actions (with the exception of the forms he be, he were). The same forms are used to express facte and non-facts: should/would do, did. They are treated either as homonymous or as polysemantic.

3. It is difficult to distinguish between mood auxiliaries and modal verbs: may, let.

All the scholars recognize the opposition of 2 moods: indicative and imperative.

Indicalive is represented by a system of categories, (tense, order, aspect, voice, etc.). It is a fact-mood or a direct mood. Imperative is represented by one form, which is used in sentences with implied subject.

G.N.Vorontsova recognizes the analytical form of the imperative, expressed by let+ Infinitive.

Problematic and unreal actions are expressed by 4 sets of forms. The form (he) be/come/take, expressing a problematic action, is the only form which differs from the forms of the indicative. There is one more form of the verb to be, different from the forms of the indicative: (he) were. But this difference disappears in all other verbs, and besides, the form (he) was is now being replaced by the form (he) was. The combinations (he) should be, (he) should have been do not differ from modal phrases.

Forms expressing unreal actions are the same as the forms of the past indicative. These forms are often treated as polysemantic, i.e. forms of the indicative, which express unreal actions in certain syntactic structures (R.Quirk, L.S.Barkhudarov). Forms of the past indicative denote actions, not connected with the moment of speaking, not “relevant” for the speaker, “not real” now. That is why they may be used to denote unreality. In this case subjunctive will be represented by 2 forms of the verb to be: (he) be, (he) were and 1 form of other verbs: (he) do, come, go.

A.I.Smimitsky: these forms are homonymic, denoting real and unreal actions: they were ... - real, past; if they were ... - unreal, non-past. Subjunctive is represented by 4 sets of forms. In this system of 4 sets of forms, denoting different degree of unreality, there is no direct correspondence of meaning and form:

a) one meaning - different forms: I suggest you do (should do) it.

b) one form - different meanings: I suggest you should do it. In your place I should do it.

The number of oblique moods will depend on the basic principle for distinguishing between them: a) meaning; b) form; c) both meaning and form,

a) B.A.llyish treats these 4 sets of forms as forms of one mood - subjunctive. The difference of form and particular meanings is disregarded: only the common component of meaning (unreality) is taken into account.

b) A.I.Smirnitsky takes into account the difference in form and recognizes 4 oblique moods: Subjunctive I (he be), Suppositional (he should be), Subjunctive II (he were), Conditional (should/would be).

c) The system of forms, expressing different degrees of unreality, will be subdivided into 2 parts:

1. Forms, denoting problematic actions (he be, should be) may be treated as forms of one mood (Subjunctive I), the analytical form ousting the synthetic form in British English.

2. Forms, denoting unreal actions (were, should/would be) are treated as different moods, expressing independent and dependent unreality, or unreal condition and unreal consequence. But their modal meaning is the same and were - should be are not opposed as moods. This opposition reveals the category, which also exists in the system of the indicative mood.