Sindarin as a linguistic phenomenon

According to these changes we can construct new Avarin words, deriving them from Primitive Quendian.  

Common Eldarin is the next stage after Primitive Quendian. "When the Eldar arrived in Aman and settled there they had already a long history behind them...also their languages had been elaborated and changed and were very different from their primitive speech as it was before the coming of Oromë" [21, p.348]. It will be discussed later in this work.

Common Telerin is the original language of the Teleri or Lindar. It comes from Common Eldarin and appeared during the Westward March. Very little is known about this language. The only thing we can say is that this language gave birth to Telerin and Sindarin as well and has very much in common with them, mostly with Telerin.

Quenya is the language of the Vanyar and the Noldor who reached Valinor. There are two dialects of Quenya: Noldorin Quenya, which later converted to Exilic Quenya, and Vanyarin Quenya. This language we will mention later.

Telerin or Lindalambë, “the tongue of the Lindar”, is the language of those Teleri, who reached Valinor. It is sometimes considered to be a dialect of Quenya, but it is an independent language. Comparing this language with the languages of real world some can detect that Telerin has an Italian flavour, though Tolkien has never mentioned it. Concerning the world of Arda, Telerin was influenced by and in turn influenced Quenya that is why they are very closely related.  Telerin is much more conservative than Quenya and preserved many old forms from the Primitive language. This is due to the fact that in Quenya there were only new realizations of one phoneme which the language didn’t have, but in Telerin there have been some major simplifications in phonemic system. [21] Here we present some words of Telerin origin. The second form is in Quenya.

1. Abari – Avari, derived from a Primitive Quendian stem “abar”, meaning “to refuse, deny”. The Elves who never left Middle-earth or began the March from Cuiviénen but stayed.
2. Alatáriel – “Galadriel”, elf-maiden crowned with a garland of bright radiance, niece of Fёanor. Has two stems “alata” – radiance, “rielle”- garland, wreath”.
3. Bala – “Vala”, one of the Ainur (Angelic Power), descended to Arda. The stem “bala” is a verb “has power”, hence the plural form Balar (“Valar”) means “those who has power” or just “the Powers”.
4. Banya – Vanya, means “beautiful”. The plural form “Vanyar” is the name of the first elves who came to Valinor and whose beauty impressed the Valar.
5. Ellálie – Eldaliё, Elf-people. The stem is “elda” which means “connected with the stars” (Elves were awakened under the stars).
6. Fallinel – Telerin Elf, which means “foam-singer” (the Teleri loved singing).
7. Gáiar – the Sea. The stem here is Gayar meaning “the Terrifier”.
8. Lindai – Singers. The Teleri called themselves by this name.
9. Lindalambe – the language of the Lindar, Telerin.
10. Telperion – the White Tree of Valinor. The stem “telepe” means silver” [11].

Nandorin is the language of the Nandor, a group of Teleri, who turned south along the Great River (Anduin), and disappeared from written history. In Quenya this word means “those who go back”. Later they appear as Silvan or Wood elves. Nandorin became extinct when Sindarin elves merged with the Silvan folk and were taken as their lords. The daily tongue of the Silvan elves became Sindarin or Sindarin with some Silvan influences. Nandorin was spoken in Mirkwood and in Lórien. All that survived of it were some thirty words [22, p.257]. Here are some of them:

1. alm – “elm-tree”
2. beorn – “man”, descended from “berno”- valiant man, warrior
3. Danas – “Green elves, Nandor”, derived from the stem “ndan” meaning “back”
4. Edel – “Elda, High Elf”, “Star-folk”
5. Lindórinand – “Vale of the Land of Singers”, “Lórien”[11]

Sindarin is the language spoken in Middle-earth in the Third Age and spoken at first only by those Elves who were left behind on the Westward March, derived from Common Telerin. There are three dialects of Sindarin: Doriathrin, Falathrin and North Sindarin. Doriathrin is spoken by the Sindar of Doriath, the heart-region of Beleriand. It is an archaic variant of Sindarin. Falathrin is spoken by the Eldars of Falas, the coast region of Beleriand. It adopted a lot of features of Quenya. North Sindarin is spoken in Hithlum, northern Beleriand. This dialect was adopted by the exiled Noldor. North Sindarin retained many features of Archaic Sindarin. The survivors of Beleriand adopted the Falathrin dialect, though some names show North Sindarin influence.

 

Chapter 2. Primitive Elvish as a linguistic phenomenon

          There are two stages of Primitive Elvish distinguished by Tolkien. The very first stage is Primitive Quendian, the ancestor of all Elvish languages in the world. PQ was the language of the first Elves, who woke up at Cuiviénen (Waters of Awakening) and was used till the beginning of The March. Common Eldarin is the next stage of Primitive Elvish. This is the language of the original Eldar, developed from PQ during the March from Cuiviénen, and the last common ancestor of Quenya and Sindarin.

 

2.1 Structure of words in Primitive Elvish

 

When we are speaking about Primitive Elvish, the meaning of the stem, root or base must be clearly understood. The root or stem is a part of a word containing a basic meaning, and in the process of derivation we can produce new words. For instance, the general idea of youth is apparently contained in the stem neth, which is the basis of words like nêthê (youth) or nethrâ (young).

The Quendian consonantal base or sundo was characterized by a determinant vowel or sundóma: thus the sundo kat has a medial sundóma “a”, and talat has the sundóma repeated. In derivative forms the sundóma might be placed before the first consonant, e.g. atalat. The "base" consists of consonants (like k-t in kat) plus a determinant vowel (in this case a) that can move around and be reduplicated. Consonantal roots are associated with a certain characteristic vowel that can be inserted in various places, but has to be present in all derived words.

The system that eventually formed at Cuiviénen featured a basic structure with two consonants and a fixed medial vowel: C-V-C-(-): dele, heki, tele, kiri,ruku, etc.   A large number of monosyllabic stems (with only an initial consonant or consonant group) still appear in the Eldarin tongues; and many of the dissyllabic stems must have been made by elaboration of these. Usually the first and the second vowels are identical and, in fact, it does not matter if the stem is given with or

without the final vowel: Ulu (pour)= ul. Some of the stems originally ended in a consonant 3, which was lost later and the final vowel was lengthened in compensation: do3 > dô. The stem for “bite” is a good example of how a stem can be modified to produce a basis for new words: nak (bite), ndak (slay), ának (jaw), naýká (biting, painful). Nak - ndak  – strengthening of the initial consonant; nak  - ának – reduplication of the medial vowel and its lengthening; nak – naýká – elaboration of the stem. We will now examine various ways of manipulating a stem.

1. Stem-vowel prefixation.

Intensive prefix is a reduplication of base-vowel:

Thil (silver shine) > Ithil (Moon)

Ndis (woman) > Indis (bride)

Stel (remain firm) > Estel (hope)

In most cases stress is moved to the new first syllable, but very seldom the original stem vowel retains accent:

Nar (flame, fire) > Anár (Sun)

Rom (loud noise) > Óromë (name of the Vala)

Rok (the dark rider upon its horse, servant of Morgoth) > Órok (orc)

2. A-infixion.

A-infixion is seen in adjectives and in some abstracts. A new vowel a is inserted into a stem, turning the stem-vowels i, u into diphthongs ai, au. The stem sliw (sickly) yields the adjective slaiwâ (sickly, sick, ill), the stem khim (adhere) yield an abstract khaimê (habit).

3. I/Y-infixion.

This seems to be rarer than A-infixion. It is stated that the stem naýká (painful) is an elaboration of nak "bite"; naýká yields Quenya words in naic-. The stem waíwa (blow) is apparently an I-infixed variant of wawa, which in turn seems to be a reduplicated form of wá.

 

 

4. Nasal-infixion.

Stems could be modified by infixing a nasal before the second consonant of the stem, m before b and p, and n. Dat (fall down) has a nasal-infixed variant dant. Lak (swallow) becomes lank, yielding words for "throat".   There is one example of ñ-infixion before w: liñwi "fish" from the stem liw.

5. Strengthening, fortification.

Ruku also appear as a strengthened stem gruk-; in this case the strengthening consists of a g-prefix. A prefix s is seen in srot- (delve underground, excavate, tunnel). B, d, g turned into nasalized plosives mb, nd, ñg. Initial n, like d, may be strengthened to nd, and m can similarly become mb. Initial ñ could be strengthened to ñg (no examples). The stem nder (bridegroom) is said to be a strengthened form of der. Similar changes can also occur in the middle of words. Kwende (elf) is derived from a stem kwene by primitive fortification of the medial n > nd. In the middle of words, the medial could also be doubled: Grottâ (a large excavation) is an intensified form of grotâ (excavation).

 

6. Extension.

Some stems have special extended forms made by suffixing the stem-vowel (this is called ómataina or vocalic extension) and adding a final consonant, usually n, k, t, or s. A similar extension involving a final n is provided by the stem el, ele yielding Common Eldarin elen (star). Órot (height, mountain), that is apparently extended from the basic stem oro (up; rise; high). There are some extensions with final -k, like otok (seven) from ot. Naýak (pain) is connected with nay (lament).

 

7. Differentiation.

  As noted above, the long forms of stems with a final vowel usually involve simple repetition of the stem-vowel: del > dele, kal > kala etc. But there are some rare cases with another final vowel –u: telu (close, end, come at the end). There are also some Quenya stems in -u, such as nicu (be chill, cold (of weather))

8. Variation

There seems to be some variation between certain similar consonants, such as t/th/d, and also between th and s, sp and ph, y and w, p and t. In the Etymologies we can find the following examples:

tin (emit slender beam) = thin (grey)

sil = thil (shine)

spalas = phalas (foam)

kyel = kwel (dead)

pik = tik (having to do with smallness)   [11]

In Primitive Elvish, nearly all words can be split into a stem followed by a derivational ending, and we have tried to list these suffixes. In the primitive language the stem and the ending are usually easy to distinguish, while the border between them is often blurred by sound-changes in the later languages. For instance, primitive sukmâ (drinking-vessel) is easily split into a stem suk (drink) with the ending -mâ denoting an implement. It should be noted that the second, reduplicated vowel of the stem, the ómataina or vocalic extension, is often not included when an ending is added to produce an actual word. There are definitely some words where the second vowel persists, as when ulu (pour) yields ulumô (pourer), but often it disappears.  
          The second vowel of two-syllable stems like gólob or stálag may also be omitted in the actual words that are derived from them; these stems manifest as golb- and stalg- in the derivatives golbâ (branch) and stalgondô (hero, dauntless man).

           In the case of two-syllable stems with a final consonant, this consonant and the final vowel may change places when an ending is added: thus the stem Úlug manifests as ulgu- in the word ulgundô (monster).

          In actual words, j as the final consonant of a stem becomes i before a consonant, merging with the stem-vowel to produce a diphthong in -i (as when the stem tuy – or tuj - yields the word tuimâ (a sprout, bud) - for tujmâ. Sometimes, but not always, j becomes i also before vowels, as when daj/dai yields daiô (shade).

W becomes u before a consonant: tiw yields tiukâ (thick, fat).

Most primitive words end in a vowel, sometimes short but often long. The vowel may be a complete ending in itself or part of a longer ending.

In Primitive Elvish, nearly all words can be split into a stem followed by a derivational ending, and we have tried to list these suffixes. In the primitive language the stem and the ending are usually easy to distinguish, while the border between them is often blurred by sound-changes in the later languages. For instance, primitive sukmâ (drinking-vessel) is easily split into a stem suk (drink) with the ending -mâ denoting an implement. It should be noted that the second, reduplicated vowel of the stem, the ómataina or vocalic extension, is often not included when an ending is added to produce an actual word. There are definitely some words where the second vowel persists, as when ulu (pour) yields ulumô (pourer), but often it disappears.  
          The second vowel of two-syllable stems like gólob or stálag may also be omitted in the actual words that are derived from them; these stems manifest as golb- and stalg- in the derivatives golbâ (branch) and stalgondô (hero, dauntless man).  
          In the case of two-syllable stems with a final consonant, this consonant and the final vowel may change places when an ending is added: thus the stem Úlug manifests as ulgu- in the word ulgundô (monster).  
         In actual words, j as the final consonant of a stem becomes i before a consonant, merging with the stem-vowel to produce a diphthong in -i (as when the stem tuy - or tuj - yields the word tuimâ (a sprout, bud) - for tujmâ. Sometimes, but not always, j becomes i also before vowels, as when daj/dai yields daiô (shade). W becomes u before a consonant: tiw yields tiukâ (thick, fat). [11]

Most primitive words end in a vowel, sometimes short but often long. The vowel may be a complete ending in itself or part of a longer ending. The ending -â (or -a) occurs in many types of words, but most prominent is the adjectival ending –â. Adjectives may be derived by simple suffixation, like mizdâ (wet) or telesâ (rear). However, the ending is often combined with certain manipulations of the stem:

 
          - Medial fortifications like m > mb, n > nd, l > ld, e.g. rimbâ (frequent, numerous), kandâ (bold), kuldâ (golden-red). 
         - Nasal infixion, e.g. tungâ (taut, tight), panda (sloping). 
        - A-infixion, e.g. thausâ (foul, evil-smelling, putrid, taurâ (masterful, mighty). 
         - I-infixion; this occurs in a small group of desiderative formations. For instance, the adjective meinâ (eager to go, desiring to start)  
         - Lengthening of stem-vowel, e.g. khîmâ (sticky, viscous), râba (wild, untamed"), dâla (flat). 
          - Stem-vowel prefixed: askarâ (tearing, hastening). [11, 21] 

Nouns in -â display much the same variation; in most cases, such nouns denote inanimate things. Some are derived by simple suffixation, e.g. wedâ (bond) or golbâ (branch). Some show nasal infixion: kwentâ (tale), randâ (cycle, age), kwingâ (bow). We also note cases where the stem-vowel is lengthened, such as râmâ (wing") or kânâ (outcry, clamour). Doubling of the final consonant in the stem is also found: rattâ, ratta (course, river-bed), gassâ (hole, gap). As noted above, there are many verbs showing final a, but then as part of the longer endings -tâ or -jâ. The simple ending -a, -â is very rare on verbs. We note olsa- (dream) Long -â combined with medial fortification m > mb occurs in tambâ (knock).

The suffix -dô is an agental ending that is preferred in the case of stems ending in n: ñgandô (harper) from and lindô (singer) from lin. There is also the word ndandô (Nando, Green-elf, one who goes back on his word or decision).  The ending -dô also appears in a nasal-infixed form -ndo or -ndô. In the word ulgundô (monster, deformed and hideous creature) from úlug used to form a noun. In the words kalrondô (hero) from kal (shine) and lansrondo, lasrondo (hearer, listener, eavesdropper), the ending -ndo, -ndô seems to be suffixed to another masculine ending -rô.

The ending -ê, -e has several meanings. A number of words denote abstract or intangible things; in such cases the stem-vowel is often lengthened: nêthê (youth) from neth, ñgôlê (Science/Philosophy), ñôle (odour) from ñol, rênê (remembrance) [19, p.360, 372]. Another group of nouns in -ê denote substances: khjelesê (glass), kjelepê (silver), laurê (golden light).         

A feminine ending -ê, -e is seen in the word tawarê (dryad, spirit of woods) evidently feminine. Cf. also bessê (wife). A few nouns in -ê denote localities: ndorê (land) [21, p.413], taurê (great wood, forest), etkelê (spring, issue of water). 
          However, the ending -ê also occurs in many nouns. It may be used alone as in spinê (larch), but more often it is combined with some other manipulations of the stem, such as nasal-infixion: londê (narrow path) lengthening of the stem-vowel: rîgê (crown); A-infixion: laibê (ointment); medial fortifications like m > mb or n > nd: rimbê (crowd, host) or doubling of the final consonant of the stem: lassê (leaf).

The ending i occurs in a number of adjectives, many of which are colour-words. In the case of monosyllabic stems ending in n, it is always combined with the fortification n > nd: slindi (fine, delicate), thindi (pallid, grey, wan, pale or silvery grey), windi (blue-grey, pale blue or grey) [21, p.384]. Ninkwi (white) combines the ending -i with nasal-infixion of the stem nikw; karani (red) shows no extra modifications. Nouns in –i can be abstract, such as rinki (flourish, quick shake). A few nouns in -i refer to periods of time: ari (day) and dômi (twilight). 
Some few denote substances: glisi (honey), pori (flour, meal), khîthi (mist, fog).

An abstract/infinitive ending -ie is found in Quenya and Old Sindarin, and we would expect it to correspond to something like -iê in the primitive language. This ending may be attested in the word luktiênê (enchantress).

An adjectival ending -imâ occurs in the word silimâ (shining white, silver). This would be the origin of the Quenya adjectival ending -ima (often meaning "-able", but sometimes used in a more general sense). The feminine ending -ittâ is mentioned in the Peoples of Middle-earth, p.345; this is the origin of Sindarin -eth.

The endings -jâ, -ja, -iâ, -ia have several meanings. They occur in a number of adjectives: banjâ (beautiful), erjâ (isolated, lonely), and kalarjâ (brilliant). It also occurs in some ordinals that are said to be Common Eldarin: lepenja (fifth), otsôja (seventh) [26]. The verbal endings -jâ, -ja, -iâ are attested in the words barjâ- (to protect), berja- (to dare), uljâ (it is raining). There are only a few nouns in -jâ, -ja: galjâ (bright light), gilja (star), kegjâ (hedge) [22, p.282].

Another adjectival ending is -kâ. In the Letters of John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, p.282, Tolkien mentions a basis lay that yields laikâ (green). Other examples include gajakâ (fell, terrible, dire) [15, p.363], poikâ (clean, pure), tiukâ (thick, fat); later -kâ became short –ka.

The ending -la seems to mean little more than "thing" or "person"; it is used as a noun-former. Tolkien defines hekla as "any thing (or person) put aside from, or left out from, its normal company" [21, p.361] this could be turned into a personal form heklô (waif or outcast) with the masculine ending -ô. In the Etymologies, -la is found in the names of a number of implements where the ending -mâ could have been used as well: makla (sword), tekla (pen), tankla (pin, brooch).

The ending -lê is used to derive nouns that "seem properly to have been universal or abstract" [26]. In most attested examples it simply acts as a verbal noun ending. The root tuy (spring, sprout) yields tuilê (day-spring) or (spring-time). Keglê comes from keg (snag, barb). The -rille of silimarille (Silmaril) is a verbal noun derived from ril "glitter", so that rille means something like "radiance, brilliance".  
           The suffix -mâ is one of the most productive endings. Tolkien points out that this suffix is frequent in the names of implements [21, p.416]. Hence the stem tak (fix, make fast) may yield takmâ (thing for fixing). From the stem yat (join) comes the word jatmâ, meaning "bridge" or "joining". Telmâ (hood, covering) comes from a stem tel that is not defined, but apparently has to do with the top or canopy of something. However, not all words in -mâ denote implements. Often it simply denotes an object somehow connected with the state or action denoted by the stem.