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Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the system of styles of a language, describes norms and ways of using literary language in different situations of communication, in various types and genres of written speech, in different spheres of life.
Back-gradation (anti-climax) consists in an abrupt descent which contrasts with the previous rise. The descent is often achieved by the addition of a detail that ruins the elevated mode of the previous narration. Its main stylistic function is to give unexpected humorous or ironic twist.
‘I hate and detest every bit of it’, said Professor Silenus gravely.
‘Nothing I have ever done has caused me so much disgust’
With a deep sigh he rose from the table and walked from the room, the fork with which he had been eating still held in his hand.
Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-going, foolish dear fellow.
Antithesis is active confrontation, emphasized co-occurrence of notions, which are contrastive. The two opposed notions may refer to the same object or to different objects. The purpose of this device is to demonstrate the contradictory nature of the referent.
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the era of incredulity; it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of Hope, it was the winter of Despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us… on the right and in front and behind…’ (Dickens)
They speak like saints and act like devils.
Oxymoron is attributing some feature to an object incompatible with that feature. The most typical structure of oxymoron is ‘attribute/adverb + noun’. This device can add humorous or dramatic effect.
falsely true, loving hate
The pain cried silently in his body.
Epithet is not considered to be trope by most linguists. It is an adjective or descriptive phrase used to characterize a person or object with the aim to give them subjective evaluation. Epithet can be expressed by the following parts of speech:
Epithets can be traditional (hackneyed): old merry England, my true love
Epithets are usually blended with other stylistic devices, thus we can speak about metaphorical epithet, metonymic epithet, or ironical epithet.
Zeugma is combining unequal, semantically heterogeneous or even incompatible words or phrases. One of the parts of zeugma can be an idiomatic set phrase, whereas the other part is a free element.
She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief. (Dickens)
Stylistic syntax is a part of linguistics which studies stylistic value of syntactic forms, stylistic function of syntactic phenomena, their stylistic classification as well as their reference to certain styles.
The building of a phrase or a sentence itself can be neutral or expressive. Stylistically neutral sentence is a sentence in which there are no deviations in the quantity and order of its elements. Any deviation from usual structure changes its stylistic value and makes it stylistically relevant or refers it to a definite style.
Not only the structure of a sentence is important but also we should take into account the interrelation of several sentences within a text.
The major expressive means at the level of a sentence can be based on the following
Elliptical sentences (ellipsis) are the sentences in which one or two principal members (the subject and the predicate) are left out, but they can be restored from the context. Ellipsis reflects colloquial English casual talk; gives liveliness; helps to create a sense of immediacy; adds to the character’s make up. Often elliptical sentences are used in represented speech because they resemble direct speech.
One-member elliptical sentences call attention to the subject named, to its existence and to its interrelations with other subjects.
He became one of the prominent men of the House. Spoke clearly and modestly, and was never too long.
- Were they interesting books?
- Don’t know. Haven’t read them. Looked pretty hopeless.
Nominative sentences consist only of the subject. They are often used in descriptive narration and in exposition. The economy of the construction gives a dynamic rhythm to the passage. One-member sentences are common in stage remarks and represented speech. They can create a variety of different shades of mood.
Winter. Night. Cold wind.
Aposiopesis (unfinished sentences) leaves the sentence unfinished as a result of the speaker’s intention to do so. It can be because of the desire not to mention something that could be reconstructed from the context or situation. It is just the part that is not mentioned that attracts the reader’s attention.
If everyone at 20 realized that half his life was to be lived after 40…
Asyndeton is absence of conjunctions. It creates the effect of brevity, speeding up the tempo, colloquial speech. Asyndeton helps to represent things as one whole.
He provided the poor with jobs, with opportunity, with self-respect.
Repetition is repeating of some word, phrase or a sentence. The part which is repeated attracts our attention.
Scrooge went to bed again, and thought, and thought, and thought it over and over and over.
Framing is repeating of the initial element of a sentence (or a paragraph) at the end of this sentence (or paragraph).
Those kids were getting it all right, with busted heads and bleeding faces – those kids were getting it!
Anadiplosis is repeating of the final element of a sentence (paragraph) at the beginning of the next sentence (paragraph).
A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick's face: a smile extended into a laugh: the laugh into a roar, and the roar became general.
Polysyndeton is excess of conjunctions. This makes an utterance more rhythmical, it shows things isolated. This device can create the atmosphere of solemnity.
And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew and beat upon the house; and it fell; and great was the fall of it.
A sentence in the English language is built up according to a definite model. Any deviation from this model can result in stylistic effect.
Stylistic inversion is putting some part of a sentence in unusual place for stylistic purposes. Usually the word which is to be emphasized is placed in the beginning of a sentence.
In he got and away they went.
Sentences combined into the text are logically connected. The structure of one sentence can be connected with the structure of another sentence, thus leading to some stylistic effect.
Parallelism is a similarity of structures of several sentences. Very often it is combined with lexical repetition. Its aim is to underline the similarity or difference of the repeated parts. Parallel constructions create a certain rhythm of speech.
The seeds ye sow – another reaps,
The robe ye weave – another wears,
The arms ye forge – another bears. (Shelly)
Parallelism reversed (Chiasmus) is a kind of parallelism where in two successive sentences the word order of the second sentence is opposite to the word order of the first sentence.
Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down. (Coleridge.)
Anaphora is repetition of the beginnings of several sentences.
My heart's in the Highlands, my heart is not here,
My heart's in the Highlands a-chasing the deer.
Chasing the wild deer and following the roe,
My heart's in the Highlands wherever I go.
Epiphora is repetition of the endings of several sentences.
.. and Mrs. Garland was there and Mr. Abel was there, and Kit’s mother was there, and little Jacob was there, and Barbara’s mother was seen in remote perspective.
Symploca is the combination of anaphora and epiphora.
If he wishes to float into fairyland, he reads a book; if he wishes to dash into the thick of battle, he reads a book; if he wishes to soar into heaven, he reads a book. (Chesterton)
Detachment is emphasizing of a secondary part of a sentence with the help of intonation and pauses as well as with the help of putting it in an unusual place. As a result, the word (phrase) is opposed to the rest of the sentence. The detached part is underlined as something especially important. In print, detached parts are separated by punctuation marks (commas or dashes). The general stylistic effect is strengthening, emphasizing the word (or phrase).
Very small and child-like, he never looked more than 14.
Talent, Mr. Micawber has; capital, Mr. Micawber has not.
Parenthetic elements are words, phrases or sentences which do not agree with the rest of the sentence grammatically, they have stylistic value. Two different lines of thought are conveyed with the help of parenthesis. In print the markers of parenthesis are dashes or brackets.
The main entrance (he had never ventured to look beyond that) was a splendid combination of glass and iron awning… (Dreiser)
Parenthetic elements help to avoid monotonous descriptions, add colloquial character of the narration. They are like sentences within other sentences.
Stylistics deals with styles. Different scholars have defined styles differently.
In 1955 the Academician V. V. Vinogradov defined style as ‘socially recognized and functionally conditioned internally united totality of the ways of using, selecting and combining the means of lingual intercourse in the sphere of one national language or another.
In 1971 Professor I. R. Galperin offered his definition of style ‘as a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication’.
According to Professor Y. M. Skrebnev, ‘style is what differentiates a group of homogeneous texts (an individual text) from all other groups (other texts)… Style can be roughly defined as the peculiarity, the set of specific features of a text type or of a specific text’.
There are some more definitions of style.
Style is a variety of the national language traditionally used in one of the socially identifiable spheres of life that is characterized by a particular set of linguistic features, including vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. (neutral, colloquial, literary style)
Style is a generally accepted linguistic identity of oral and written units of discourse, such as public speech, a lecture, a friendly letter, a newspaper article, etc. Such units demonstrate style not only in a special choice of linguistic means but in their arrangement. (oratory, scientific, familiar, publicist style)
Style is individual manner of expression determined by personal factors (educational background, profession, sense of humour, etc.)
Any national language uses the notion of ‘correct language’ or ‘linguistic norm’. It combines grammatical, lexical and phonetic standards accepted as normative in this society. It is presented in dictionaries and grammars.
However, literary norm is not homogeneous. It varies due to regional, social, situational and personal factors.
The system of the language provides the general rules of elements usage; the norm is the actual use of these provisions. Individual use is a personal selection of linguistic means of all levels.
Functional styles are subsystems of the language which represent varieties of the norm of the national language. Each functional style is characterized by vocabulary usage, syntactical expression, phraseology, and other points. Functional style reflects peculiar functions of the language in communication. So, we can say that a functional style is a system of language means fulfilling a specific function of communication. Each functional style has its own characteristics on different levels (phonetic, lexical, syntactical, morphological, and compositional). Each style is characterized by its own function in communication.
There are many classifications of language varieties that are called sub-languages, substyles, and functional styles. These classifications use various criteria for their categorization. The term generally accepted by most Russian scholars is functional style.
I. R. Galperin distinguishes 5 major functional styles subdivided into smaller ones.
Many scientists do not agree with this classification, especially with distinguishing the belles-lettres style. Books of fiction are heterogeneous in vocabulary, syntax, stylistic phenomena; they do not have any features of their own. Second, I.R. Galperin excludes colloquial style from his classification. In his opinion style is the result of the activity of a writer who chooses language means carefully. An individual in colloquial speech chooses them spontaneously, that is why we cannot call it a style.
Only written
variety of the language is included in this classification.
Y. M. Skrebnev describes 2 styles:
Both poetry and imaginative prose have not been included (as non-homogeneous objects) into this classification.
I. V. Arnold distinguishes the following styles.
This scientist recognizes colloquial style, which is the advantage of her classification. Distinguishing separate newspaper style, however, is criticized by most scientists, because it is quite heterogeneous. It includes essays on economics, art; stories, ads, etc.
He draws our attention to the fact that styles prevail not in their pure, but in mixed form.
The Belles-Lettres Style includes poetry, emotive prose and the drama. Their function is ‘aesthetical-cognitive’. The purpose of this style is to give a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life.
The Belles-Lettres Style has fresh linguistic devices, the use of words is contextual, the choice of vocabulary and syntax is individual.
In poetry we find orderly form, poems are arranged rhythmically and phonetically. Alliteration and assonance are used in poems. Words are carefully selected because of the restriction of the pattern. On the level of syntax, ellipsis, inversion, asyndeton, detachment and parallel constructions are used.
In emotive prose literary and colloquial variants of the language are used. Writers freely apply different stylistic devices on all levels (phonetic, morphological, syntactical and lexical).
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