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Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the system of styles of a language, describes norms and ways of using literary language in different situations of communication, in various types and genres of written speech, in different spheres of life.
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the system of styles of a language, describes norms and ways of using literary language in different situations of communication, in various types and genres of written speech, in different spheres of life.
The aim of stylistics is to help the reader to get more information from the language means used in speech, to receive aesthetic pleasure while reading. Another aim of this science is to describe certain areas of sub-languages (phonemic, morphological, etc.). Stylistics describes unusual usage of the language elements, specific features which distinguish this sub-language from the others.
Data of stylistic analysis are used for revealing peculiarities of definite texts or types of texts.
The subject of stylistics is a language (as the wide notion) which includes both written and oral variations.
The object of stylistics is the information which is often vague (unclear) for an ordinary reader, so called between-lines information. That is why stylistics is a science which studies connotations.
Connotations are parts of semantic structure of language units and their groups, which do not have lexical or grammatical meaning. But these parts denote the class to which the units belong: either a definite sub-language (i.e. a style) or its central or neutral part.
The term ‘style’ is used to describe:
That is why stylistics studies all these aspects of style.
A language is divided into levels which consist of their own specific units. Each unit is described by its own science.
| unit | level | science |
| phoneme | phonemic | phonology |
| morpheme | morphemic | morphology |
| lexeme | lexical | lexicology |
| phrase | phraseological | phraseology |
| sentence | syntactic | syntax |
| text | textual | linguistics of text |
Stylistics does not describe a definite level of a language. It penetrates into all levels. Thus, stylistics is divided into:
General phonetics studies the whole pronunciation system of a language. Stylistic phonetics studies only phonetic features of sub-language, which form the style, for example, variations of pronunciation in different types of speech.
General morphology studies morphemes and grammatical meanings, which are expressed in a language in general without taking into consideration their stylistic value. Stylistic morphology studies grammatical forms and grammatical meanings which characterize definite sub-languages.
General lexicology is closely connected with stylistic lexicology. General lexicology often gives stylistic classification of vocabulary and this is a field of stylistic lexicology.
Etymological analysis (especially the problem of borrowings) is stylistically important if the borrowed words are stylistically loaded.
General syntax studies a sentence from the point of view of its structure and building of correct utterances in this particular language. Stylistic syntax studies specific constructions which characterize different types of speech.
Together with form, language units (except phonemes) have meanings. Morphemes, lexemes, phrases and sentences are associated with classes of things, processes, qualities, and relationships. Meanings are investigated and described by semasiology. Stylistic semasiology studies the meanings of morphs, words, word combinations, sentences, which are found in a definite style.
There is also literature stylistics which is a branch of theory of literature. It studies belles-lettres, poetry, science fiction, etc. from the point of view of problems which are contained in these works, their compositional structure, biography of the author (facts that are relevant for understanding his works), author’s message.
Some scientists talk about decoding stylistics. Its founder is Michael Riffaterre. This is a science of decoding information which is hidden in the text.
Historical stylistics deals with variations of certain styles or stylistic colouring of language elements; the history of stylistic system as such; forming and developing of stylistic variations of a language; history of their relationships.
Many linguists do not classify vocabulary because it is heterogeneous and includes a large number of words. Some scientists, however, offer classifications. Most of them are based on binary opposition.
J. M. Skrebnev distinguishes three main levels:
1. stylistically neutral,
2. superneutral,
3. subneutral.
I. V. Arnold calls these levels:
1. stylistically unmarked
2. formal vocabulary
3. informal vocabulary
All these classifications can be represented in the form of a table. All words are divided into two main groups: stylistically neutral (their usage is unlimited) and stylistically marked (their usage is limited). The last group is divided into two subgroups: bookish words and colloquial words.
I.R.
Galperin suggests the following scheme of classification.
common
literary
vocabulary
Galperin’s
classification of vocabulary
He presents the whole vocabulary in the form of three circles. They overlap each other. The biggest central circle is ‘Standard English’. The higher circle is ‘Special literary vocabulary’, the lower circle is ‘Special colloquial vocabulary’. The area where ‘Standard English’ and ‘Special literary vocabulary’ overlap is ‘Common literary vocabulary’. The area where ‘Standard English’ and ‘Special colloquial vocabulary’ overlap is ‘Common colloquial vocabulary’. Special literary vocabulary includes terms, archaic words, neologisms, poetic words and foreignisms. Special colloquial vocabulary includes slang, professionalisms, vulgarisms and cant.
The words belonging to Standard English are as a rule of Anglo-Saxon origin. They are mostly one-syllabic and have many meanings. The primary meaning belongs to Standard English. These words can be used in any situation of communication. They have nothing special about them; they do not cause any definite associations. (take, child, big) The words belonging to Standard English are emotionally neutral.
Special literary vocabulary is elevated. It stands above Standard English.
Archaisms are words which are out of use. Some archaisms denote things which do not exist any more (names of things which have disappeared in the course of history) (yeoman – йомен (крестьянин в Англии 14 – 18 веков, который вел, как правило, самостоятельное хозяйство). The other archaisms have their synonyms which are used nowadays (the word ‘main’ (море, океан) has been replaced by the word ‘ocean’). The use of archaisms creates romantic atmosphere or the atmosphere of the past. Archaic words are emotionally coloured.
Neologisms are new words, which seem strange at first. Usually, they appear to denote new things and notions. Neologisms are emotionally coloured when they first appear, but when people get used to them they become emotionally neutral. (brandalism - брендализм (завешивание городских фасадов уродливыми рекламными постерами))
Terms denote things and notions of science (chemistry, mathematics, biology, etc.) (protoplasm, tribasic (трехосновный (о кислоте)), triaxial (трехмерный)). Terms are emotionally neutral.
Foreign words are mostly late borrowings from French, they have their French pronunciation and spelling. For example, ‘Au revoir’, ‘chic’. These words have their English synonyms. Foreign words are not included into dictionaries of the English language. They are emotionally neutral.
Special colloquial vocabulary stands below Standard English. Its sphere of use is socially lower than the neutral sphere.
Professionalisms appear in professional groups for things, phenomena and processes which characterize a certain profession. They are synonyms to official terms of this professional sphere. Jargon words make communication of the representatives of the profession easier. (the expression ‘sewing machine’ is used by soldiers for ‘machine-gun’ пулемет, chopper – «вертушка») Professionalisms are emotionally neutral within the group of people who belong to this profession.
Cant is a secret language of criminals. It is used for keeping things in secret from ordinary people. These words are ordinary English words with transferred meaning. (crib; flash-house; ken; fencing ken – ‘малина’) Cant is emotionally neutral for the social group of people who use it, but it is emotionally coloured for the rest of the society.
Slang is the part of the vocabulary which is commonly understood. It is built with the help of metonymy, metaphor, hyperbole, understatement, irony, etc. Slang words are intentional substitutes of neutral and elevated words. (to nail – обнаружить, накрыть, застукать (school slang)) Slang is emotionally coloured.
Vulgar words denote things which are considered unmentionable in a civilized society. They are emotionally coloured. They are divided into stylistic vulgar words and vulgarisms proper. Stylistic vulgarisms are the words whose lexical meaning does not imply anything indecent, but their usage is inappropriate in certain situations of communication. Old buffer – старый хрыч, idiot – идиот, дурак. Vulgarisms proper are the words which should not be used in civilized society because they denote indecent things, as a rule certain parts of a body.
Within texts all words of a language may become emotionally coloured even if they belong to Standard English.
We find such phenomenon in the English language as stylistic synonyms. They exist due to the stylistic stratification of vocabulary. Stylistic synonyms do not differ in meaning. They differ in their stylistic reference; they refer to different groups of the English vocabulary.
The examples of stylistic synonyms are:
infant – child – kid (common literary, Standard English, common colloquial)
to pass away – to die – to kick the bucket (common literary, Standard English, slang)
Interaction of speech sounds can be expressive means, it emphasizes the idea expressed by words with repeated sounds. Phonetic expressive means are used not only in poetry, but in descriptions in prose as well.
There are some kinds of phonetic expressive means: alliteration, assonance, sound arrangement, onomatopoeia, rhyme, and rhythm.
Alliteration is repetition of consonants in several neighbour words (usually, at the beginning).
last but not least; now or never; forgive and forget
Assonance is repetition of vowels in stressed syllables in several neighbour words.
"...Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden, I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore — Clasp a rare and radiant maiden, whom the angels name Lenore?" (E. Poe)
(Поведай горестной душе, скажи, дано ли будет мне прижать к груди, обнять в раю Ленору светлую мою?)
Repetition of the diphthong [ei] creates the atmosphere of hope, this part sounds more optimistic than the rest of the poem.
Sound arrangement is combination of alliteration and assonance.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
As busy as a bee.
We find assonance, alliteration and sound arrangement in poems, proverbs, titles of books and newspaper headings.
Onomatopoeia (sound imitation) is the imitation of the natural sounds, machines, animals. It can be direct (whistle, splash, buzz, cuckoo, hiss) and indirect (This gorgeous gaggle of geese).
Pun (play on words) is often based on using homonyms (different words which are pronounced in the same way).
I
am on a sea-food diet (the words ‘sea’ and
‘see’ are pronounced identically, that is why we hear
‘see-food diet’)
Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds at the end of lines in poetry.
flesh – fresh – press (vowel rhyme)
tale – tool, treble – trouble (consonant rhyme)
Rhyme can be male and female. Male rhyme involves repetition of similar sounds in the words ending in stressed syllable. It is a single rhyme. dreams – streams; fight – light. Female rhyme involves repetition of similar sounds in stressed syllables whereas the words end in unstressed syllable. berry – merry; never – feather. It is a double rhyme.
In perfect rhymes the stressed vowels and all following sounds are identical. might – right; life – wife. In imperfect rhyme not all the sounds are identical. It can be divided into consonant, vowel, and eye-rhyme.
Consonant rhyme is a rhyme when consonants are repeated in the last words of poetic lines. fresh – press; tale – pull. Assonance rhyme is a rhyme when vowels are repeated in the last words of poetic lines. tale – pain.
There are so called ‘eye-rhymes’ where the spelling of the words at the end of the lines is similar, but they are read differently. woods – floods; have – gave; love – prove.
Rhythm is movement characterized by regular repetition of elements.
It brings order into the utterance. Rhythm demands oppositions of long and short, stressed and unstressed sounds. Rhythm is based on repetition of similar structural units following one another after short intervals.
The high-sloping roof, of a fine sooty pink was almost Danish, and two ducky little windows looked out of it, giving an impression that very tall servants lived up there.
(Galsworthy)
The attributes in pairs are all structurally similar word-combinations and create the rhythm.
Printed texts reflect the peculiarities of characters’ speech. For that graphons are widely used.
Graphon is intentional violation of the spelling of a word (or word combination) used to reflect authentic pronunciation. (V. A. Kukharenko)
Graphon is unusual, non-standard spelling of a word, which reflects its deviation from Standard English.
Graphons are used to show the following things.
1. Individual peculiarities of character’s speech (purely individual mispronunciation of certain sounds):
Thith ith a bad piech of bithnith.
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