Methods of teaching

-- Speak on the text heard. For example, pupils listened to the text "Great Britain" (there is a map of Great Britain on the wall). The teacher asks them (in turn) to come up to the map and speak on Great Britain. While speaking pupils can use the information they have just received or appeal to their knowledge about the   country.

-- Discuss a problem or problems touched upon in the text read or heard. For example, pupils read about education in Great Britain. After the teacher makes sure that his pupils understand the text and have a certain idea of the system of education in Great Britain, he arranges a discussion on the problem. He asks his pupils to compare the system of education in Great Britain and in our country. The teacher stimulates pupils' speech either by questions or through wrong statements.

-- Have an interview with "a foreigner". For example, pupils are studying the topic "London". The teacher may arrange an interview. One of the pupils is "a Londoner". The classmates ask him various questions and express their opinions on the subjects under discussion.

-- Help a "foreigner", for example, to find the way to the main street or square of the town; or instruct him as to the places of interest in the town. This may be done directly or with the help of "an interpreter".

There are, of course, other techniques for stimulating pupils' unprepared speech. The teacher chooses the techniques most suitable for his pupils since he knows their aptitudes, their progress in the language, the time he has at his disposal for developing speaking skills, the concrete material at which pupils are working.

In conclusion it should be said that prepared and unprepared speech must be developed simultaneously from the very beginning. The relationship between prepared and unprepared speech should vary depending on the stage of learning the language. In the junior stage prepared speech takes the lead, while in the senior stage unprepared speech should prevail.[6]

 

1.5 Mistakes and how to correct them

 

It is natural while learning a foreign language that pupils make mistakes. They make mistakes in auding when they misunderstand something in a text. They make mistakes in speaking when pupils mispronounce a word, violate the order of words in a sentence, misuse a preposition, an article, use wrong intonation, etc. The teacher's main aim is to prevent pupils' errors. There is a good rule: "Correct mistakes before they occur." In other words, careful teaching results in correct English, i. e., pupils make very few mistakes. However, they make them, and the problem is how to correct pupils' errors.

If a pupil misunderstands something when auding the teacher should do his best to ensure comprehension. He suggests that the pupil should either listen to the sentence again; if he does not understand it properly the teacher or the classmates help him to paraphrase the sentence or translate" it, or see it written. The latter often helps if pupils do not get used to hearing, if they are eye-learners. As far as speaking is concerned it is the teacher who corrects pupils' mistakes. It is a bad habit of some teachers to ask pupils to notice mistakes when their classmate is called in front of the class to speak.

This is due to the following reasons. Firstly, pupils' attention is drawn, not to what the classmate says, but to how he says it, i. e., not to the content, but to the form. If we admit that the form may not always be correct, then why should we concentrate pupils' attention on the form? Moreover, when pupils' attention is centered on errors, they often do not grasp what the classmate says, and that is why they cannot ask questions or continue the story he has told them.

Secondly, the pupil who speaks thinks more about how to say something instead of what to say. No speaking is possible when the speaker has to concentrate on the form. He makes more errors under this condition. More than that, he often refuses to speak when he sees the classmates raise their hands after he has uttered his first sentence. This does not encourage the learner to speak.

Accordingly when a pupil is called to the front of the class to speak, the class is invited to follow what he says so that they may be able to ask questions or to go on with the story when he stops.

There is a great variety of techniques at the teacher's disposal. He selects the one that is most suitable for the occasion.

1. If a pupil makes a mistake in something which is familiar to him, it is preferable to correct it at once. But in order not to confuse the pupil and stop his narration the teacher helps the child with the correct version.

Pupil:  My mother get up at 7 o'clock.

Teacher: I see, your mother gets up earlier than you.

Pupil:  Yes, my mother gets up at 7.

2. If a pupil makes a mistake in something which he has not learned yet the teacher corrects his mistakes after he has finished speaking.

Pupil: She first visited us in 1960.

She is a good friend of ours since.

The teacher gives the correct sentence: She has been a good friend of ours since.

If many pupils make the same mistakes, for instance, in prepositions (go in instead of go to), articles (the Moscow instead of Moscow, or Volga instead of the Volga), in tense forms (the Present Continuous instead of the Present Indefinite) the teacher makes note of them and gets the pupils to perform drill exercises after answering questions.[5]

The teacher should not emphasize incorrect forms in any way or they will be memorized along with the correct ones, for instance: Books is. Do you say "books is"? You shouldn't say "books is". What should you say?

 

Chapter II. Speaking in teaching practice

 

2.1 Speech and oral exercises

 

We must distinguish speech and oral exercises for they are often mixed up by the teacher.

Speech is a process of communication by means of language. For example, (1) a pupil tells the class a story about something which once happened to him; (2) the teacher asks questions on the story read by the pupils at home and starts a discussion; (3) pupils speak on the pictures suggested by the teacher, each tries to say what others have not mentioned; (4) pupils listen to the story and get some new information from the text; (5) they see a sound film and learn about something new from it, etc.

Oral exercises are used for the pupils to assimilate phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary. They are mostly drill exercises and the teacher turns to them whenever he works at enriching pupils' knowledge in vocabulary and grammar, at improving pupils' pronunciation, etc. For example, reciting a rhyme or a poem is considered to be an excellent oral exercise for drilling pronunciation and for developing speech habits. Making up sentences following the model is an excellent oral exercise for fixing a sentence pattern and words which fit the pattern in the pupils' mind. Making statements with the words or phrases the teacher gives is another valuable oral exercise which allows the teacher to retain them in his pupils' memory through manifold repetitions.

Oral exercises are quite indispensable to developing speech. However, they only prepare pupils for speaking and cannot be considered to be “speech” as some teachers are apt to think and who are often satisfied with oral exercises which pupils perform following the model; they seldom use stimuli for developing pupils' auding and speaking in the target language.[5]

In order to get a better understanding of what speech is we are to consider the psychological and linguistic characteristics of speech.

2.2 Techniques the teacher uses to develop hearing

 

To fulfil the task the teacher must train his pupils in listening comprehension beginning with the first lesson and throughout the whole period of instruction. These are the techniques the teacher uses for the purpose:

1. The teacher uses the foreign language:

(a) when   giving   the   class   instructions;

(b) when presenting new language material (words, sentence patterns);

(c) when checking pupils' comprehension;

(d) when consolidating the material  presented;

(e) when checking pupils' assimilation of the language material covered.

These are the cases when the target language is used as a means of communication and a means of teaching. There is a great deal of auding in all the points of the lesson. This raises the problem of the teacher's speech during the lesson. It should be correct, sufficiently loud, clear, and expressive. But many of the teachers are too talkative. We can hear them speaking most of the time. Moreover, some teachers speak a great deal in Russian.

Conducting a lesson in a foreign language gives the teacher an opportunity to develop pupils' abilities in hearing; to train them in listening to him attentively during the lesson; to demonstrate the language as a means of communication; to provide favorable conditions for the assimilation of the language; to perfect his own speaking skills; to keep his own speech under control, i. e., to keep himself from undue talkativeness.

2. The teacher uses drill and speech exercises for developing listening comprehension.

We can group drill exercises into exercises designed for overcoming linguistic difficulties, and exercises which can eliminate psychological difficulties.

The first group of drill exercises includes:

(a) phonetic exercises which will help the teacher to develop his pupils' ear for English sounds:

-- Listen to the following words and raise your hands when you hear the words with [ae] (The teacher says: desk, pen, ten, bag, etc.)

-- Listen to the following pairs of words and say in what sound they differ: pen -- pin; bed -- bad; eyes -- ice; white -- wide.

(b) lexical exercises which will help the teacher to develop pupils' skills in recognizing words:

-- Listen to the words and recognize the word boy among other words: a baby, a toy, a boat, a boy, a girl.

-- Listen to the following words and raise your hands when you hear the words referring to plants: street, tree, grass, class, flower, tower.

-- Listen to the following sentences and say whether the word country has the same meaning in both sentences:

I usually spent my holidays in the country.

The Soviet Union is a large country.

(c) grammar exercises which help the teacher to develop pupils' skills in recognizing grammar forms and structures:

-- Listen to the following words and raise your hands when you hear words in plural: desk, tables, book, box, pens, books, boxes, etc.

-- Listen to the following sentences and say in which one the word help is used as a noun.

He can help you. I need his help.

The second group of drill exercises includes:

(a) exercises which help the teacher to develop his pupils' auditory memory:

-- Listen to the following words and try to memorize them. (The teacher pronounces a number of words pointing to the object each denotes: a carrot, a potato, a cucumber, a tomato. Afterwards pupils are told to point to the object the teacher names.)

-- Listen to the phrases and repeat them. The teacher says: on the table,, in the box, near the blackboard.

-- Listen to the sentences and repeat them. (The teacher says: I like tea. Ann doesn't like tea. She likes milk.)

-- Listen to the sentences and repeat them in the same sequence. (The teacher says: In the evening we have tea. I like it very much. The teacher may increase the number of sentences for pupils to memorize.)

 (b) exercises which are designed for developing pupils'  attention:

-- Listen to the following text: I have a sister. Her name is Ann. Mike has no sister. He has a brother.

Now say what is the name of Mike's sister.

-- Listen to the text. (The text follows.) Now say which sentence was omitted (added) when you listened to it a second time.

 (c) exercises which develop pupils' visual  imagination:

-- Listen to the following definition and give it a name: We write with it on the blackboard. We take it when it rains.

-- Listen and say which season it is: It is cold. It often snows. Children can skate and ski.

 (d) exercises which help the teacher to develop his pupils' logical thinking:

-- Listen to the sentences and say whether they are logically arranged:         Her name is Mary. This is a girl.

Drill exercises are quite indispensable to developing pupils' skills in listening comprehension.

Speech exercises are designed for developing pupils' skills in auding. Several groups of exercises may be suggested:

1. Exercises which teach pupils to understand texts different in content, form, and type. Pupils are asked to listen to a description or a narration; the text may be a dialogue, it may deal with the life of people whose language the pupils study,  or with  the pupils'  environment.

-- Listen to the story. Your task is to define its main idea. You should choose one among those suggested by the teacher.

-- Listen to the story. Your task is to grasp as much information as you can. While auding try to put down key words and sentences; they will help you to convey the context of the story.

2. Exercises which develop pupils' skills to understand a text under different conditions. Sound producing aids should be extensively used for developing pupils' auding, as pupils are supposed to understand not only their teacher's speech, but other people speaking the target language, including native speakers. Besides, sound producing aids allow the teacher to supply pupils with recorded speech different in speed and voice.

Before pupils are invited to listen to the text the teacher should ensure that all the words and grammar are familiar to the pupils otherwise language difficulties will prevent them from understanding the story. Thus, if there are some unfamiliar words, the teacher introduces them beforehand; he either puts them down on the blackboard with the mother tongue equivalents in the sequence they appear in the text, or he asks pupils to pronounce the words written on the blackboard if he plans a talk on the text afterwards, and pupils are to use these words in their speech.[5]

Then the teacher should direct his pupils' attention to what they are going to listen to. This is of great importance for experiments prove that if your aim is that your pupils should keep on talking on the text they have heard it stimulates their thinking and facilitates their comprehension of the text.

The following tasks may be suggested to draw pupils' attention to what they are auding:

-- Listen and try to grasp the main idea of the story. You will be asked questions later on.

-- Listen and try to grasp the details. You will have to name them.

-- Listen and make a plan of the story.

-- Listen to the story and try to finish it (think of the end of the story).

-- Listen to the story. You will ask questions on it afterwards.

-- Listen to the text. You will retell it afterwards.

-- Listen to the story. We shall have a discussion on it. Etc.

When pupils are ready to listen, the text can be read to them. If it is the teacher who reads or tells the story, he can help pupils to comprehend the text with gestures. If the text is recorded, a picture or pictures can facilitate comprehension. The pupils listen to the text once as is usually the case in real communication. Then the teacher checks their comprehension. If they have not understood it, they are told to listen to the text again. The teacher can use a dialogue to help pupils to understand the text after they have listened to the story for the first time, i. e., he may ask questions, make statements on the text for pupils to agree or reject them.

Checking pupils' comprehension may be done in many ways depending on the stage of instruction, pupils' progress in the language, and other factors. In any case, however, it is necessary to proceed in order of complexity from mere recognition to reproduction. The procedure may be:

general questions   special questions wrong statements

The teacher checks his pupils'    comprehension only.

                                    

pupils' questions on the text  making a plan telling the text according to the plan (it may be done in a chain-like way) reciting the text giving  the gist of  the text written  reproduction  of the text discussing the text

The teacher   checks   pupils' comprehension and develops their   speaking    skills    on the basis of the text heard.

 

Skills in hearing must be built up gradually. The teacher begins with a story containing 3--4 sentences. He uses pictures, gestures to help pupils to understand it. Gradually he can take longer sections and faster speeds with less visual help and in more difficult language. The teacher must bear in mind that careful grading in all these ways is of the utmost importance. Texts, stories to be read or recorded should be interesting and fairly easy.

 

2.3 Techniques the teacher uses for teaching speaking

 

There are two forms of speaking: monologue and dialogue. Since each form has its peculiarities we should speak of teaching monologue and teaching dialogue separately.

In teaching monologue we can easily distinguish three stages according to the levels which constitute the ability to speak: (1) the statement level; (2) the utterance level; (3) the discourse level.

1. No speech is possible until pupils learn how to make up sentences in the foreign language and how to make statements. To develop pupils' skills in making statements the following procedure may be suggested:

Pupils are given sentence patterns to assimilate in connection with situations.

The sentence pattern is filled with different words. Thus pupils can express various thoughts. For example:

I can see a ... .

P u p i l 1: I can see a blackboard.

P u p i 1 2: I can see a picture.

P u p i l 3: I can see a map, etc.

I am fond of   ...

P u p i l 1: I am fond of music.

P u p i 1 2: I am fond of  classical music.

P u p i 1 3: I am fond of pop music, etc.

We are proud of ...

P u p i l 1: We are proud of our country.

P u p i 1 2: We are proud of our sportsmen.

P u p i 1 3: We are proud of our school, etc.

Pupils are invited to perform various drill exercises within the sentence patterns given:

-- substitution: I have a book (a pen);

-- extention: I have an interesting book,

I have an interesting book at home;

-- transformation: He has a book,

He has no book;

-- completion: If I have time I'll ... .

Pattern practice, of course, makes no pretence of being communication. However, pattern practice for communication is what playing scales and arpeggios is to a musician. Each pattern will have to be repeated many times with a great variety of changes in its contents until the pattern becomes a habit.

Pupils make statements of their own in connection with the situations suggested by the teacher.

Give it a name.

Teacher: We write with it.

Pupil: It is a pencil (pen).

Make statements on the picture.

Teacher (silently points  to  the picture of  a cat)

P u p i l 1:     This is a cat.

P u p i l 2:     This is a black cat.

Say the opposite.

Teacher: I live in Gorky Street.

Pupil: I do not live in Gorky Street,

Teacher (pointing to  the boy):  He likes to play hockey.

Pupil:        I don't like to play hockey.

When pupils are able to make statements in the foreign language within grammar and vocabulary they have assimilated their speech may be more complicated. They should learn to combine statements of various sentence patterns in a logical sequence.

2. Pupils are taught how to use different sentence patterns in an utterance about an object, a subject offered. First they are to follow a model, and then they do it without any help.

Teacher: Say   a few words about it. (He points to an object.)

Pupil:        This is a pencil.

The pencil is green.