Development of lexicography

2. Why can't I understand the definitions?

Perhaps my dictionary is too complicated. I try using one that's especially designed for learners of English at my level. It's annoying if I can't understand the definition or example sentence of a new word. It's much better to start off with a simpler dictionary, such as Longman Active Study Dictionary , then I move on to a more complex one later.

3. How many words should there be?

No dictionary contains all the words and expressions in English (currently estimated to be around 1 million). The average person knows at least 60,000 words, so a useful dictionary will have around 80,000 words and expressions.

4. Why can't I find the words in my dictionary?

English is changing – every year there are new words and expressions. I make sure my dictionary is fairly new, as any dictionary older than a few years may be out-of-date. If I’m looking for a special or technical word, it might be a good idea to invest in a specialized dictionary. 
 

   2.2 The method of bilingual dictionary usage 

    If we look at bilingual dictionaries from the user’s perspective the first thing to be mentioned is this: bilingual general-purpose dictionaries, like monolingual ones, at natives and foreign learners are directed.

    Set of values for word facilities, especially in the form of potential or already established in the speech phrases, however, is much wider and catch one or the other terminological connotation in Russian translation is not easy.

    The word facility (pl. facilities) is represented: 1) удобства; средства обслуживания; good transportation facilities – хорошо организованный транспорт; 2) возможности, благоприятные условия; льготы; my way of life offers no facilities for study - у меня нет благоприятных условий для занятий; they are not given the facilities you have - у них нет таких возможностей (льгот), как у вас; facilities for research - благоприятные условия для исследований; pl. оборудование; средства; устройства; athletic facilities - спортивные сооружения; bathing facilities - оборудование пляжа (бассейна); lighting facilities - осветительные устройства. 

Disclosure of the semantic structure of words through a bilingual dictionary 
 

facilities and standard service                                  виды и уровень обслуживания

facilities available for generation of power             мощность электростанций

banking facilities                                                     банковские услуги, банковские

                                                                учреждения, банковские       
                                      операции    

buffer stock financing facilities                              системы (механизмы)

                                                                         финансирования буферных запасов

cold storage facilities                                              холодильники, емкость

                                                        холодильного хозяйства 
 
 
 
 

The use of translation equivalents and a bilingual dictionary for the purpose of making the translation solutions 
 

Public (adj.) - государственный; общественный; открытый; гласный 

public criticism                                                         открытая критика 

public debate                                                          дискуссия среди  широких слоев

                                                                                    населения, общественная        
                                                                                    дискуссия

public debt                                                                  государственный долг, 

                                                                                    задолженность (государства)

                                                                                      

public employment                                               государственные служащие места   

                                                                                    (предприятия) общественного

                                                                                    пользования

                                                                                    (школы, больницы и т. п.)

                                                    

public disaster                                                 всеобщее бедствие 

                                                                           (напр., об экономическом кризисе, 

                                                   наводнении и т.  п.)  

public domain                                                          государственная собственность 

public facilities                                                   работы, не защищенные авторским

                                                                                    правом или патентом

 

public health                                                                здравоохранение, народное

                                                                                     здравоохранение 

public hearing                                                              открытое слушание дела 

public opinion poll                                                      опрос общественного мнения 

public organization                                                     общественная организация  

public prosecutor                                                        общественный обвинитель  

public reaction                                                           реакция общественности

                                                                                    отклик (на что-л.) 

   
 

   2.3 The method of bilingual phraseology dictionary usage

 

    Each bilingual dictionary contains phraseological units. As a rule, the meaning of these units accurately transmitted to the dictionary, though, in terms of transmission of imagery, translations are not always successful. These examples show that how great a role to explain the meaning of idioms in dictionary.  

Behind one’s back                                               за чьей-л. спиной, тайком, за глаза 

Jump at the bait                                                   попасться на удочку, «клюнуть» 

To fall into clutches                                             попасть в чьи-л. когти

 

Also dictionary included traditional idioms:      

To spill the beans                                                 распустить язык, проболтаться       

To hang one’s head                                              повесить голову, стыдиться 

Live it up                                    хорошо провести время, прожить все деньги                                                           

                                                                              
                                                                                   

   2.4 The method of bilingual slang dictionary usage 

    The problems of translation of bilingual slang dictionary should not be confused with common problems of slang dictionaries.

    Slang often associated with such close conceptions as professionalism, jargons and vulgarisms.

   

Political        Disclosure of the values ​​in the dictionaries       Translation 
slang 

Ball game     (U.S. slang) 1. a center or field of action  1. авансцена; центр событий;

                        2. a state of affairs; situation                 2. обстановка;  

Сan of worms   (U.S. slang) a complicated and unsolved    (букв. «банка червей»)

                        problem, e.g. the whole area of screen     большая загадка; чертовски

                        acting is probably going to be a big can сложная проблема; бог знает       

                        of worms in the text few years                что 

Jawboning       (U.S. slang) strong urging or warning     предупреждение

                        by an influential person                          влиятельного человека;

                          to leaders in industry,                            слабо замаскированная                                                                       

                       labour, etc.                                               угроза

   Conclusion 
 

   In this work I succeeded in achievement of all the tasks that I had had at the beginning of my investigation: to become acquainted with the history of British and American lexicography, to study the variety of dictionaries of different types, to analyze modern trends in English lexicography and to develop recommendation strategy for working with dictionary. So I proved the importance of dictionary-making in modern linguistics.

    A dictionary is a reference work on the culture of speech. It usually answers the basic questions posed by the user before he looks into the dictionary: am I right in saying, whether I use the word or expression correctly, is it true that the word is translated into another language and so on. Also a dictionary is a product of history and culture of the people and achievement of science society in a particular period of historical development.

    As development and changing of the language is undeniable fact, a dictionary is also a temporary phenomenon. It always captures the language in a certain period of its development, whether is contemporary or historical (etymological) dictionary.

    A dictionary is usually created with the new needs, new addressee and the actual linguistic views. Thus the lexicographic product is always relatively new.

    It should be noted that development of dictionary-making is paid enough attention to both the British and American lexicography.

    At the same time modern vocabulary works in his own anarchical. Lexicographic fixation linguistic innovations, usually late in the development of language in general and in the movement of life, that from a philosophical point of view objectively and logically.

    Each user knows that in a dictionary is collected all the words of the language. A dictionary is the most complete linguistic treasure. Can not speak of absolute completeness vocabulary works, because the end of each created dictionary is open the next one planned. Finished vocabulary work inspires future lexicographical work, in this proof of the creative process of compiling dictionaries.

    As an important research tool for various sections of linguistics dictionaries have a great practical importance. In the fact this value consists in providing the ability to navigate in the vast and complex body language quickly and effectively, thus contributing to maintaining standards of literary language, of expressiveness and precision of individual speech of its bearer. 

    So General lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use.

    Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g. legal lexicography.

    Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries.

    Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly discipline of analyzing and describing the semantic relationships within the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language and developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries. This is sometimes referred to as met lexicography.

    There is some disagreement on the definition of lexicology, as distinct from lexicography. Some use «lexicology» as a synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean a branch of linguistics pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language.

    It is now widely accepted that lexicography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub-branch of linguistics.

    So I can’t imagine my studying or work without lexicography because any pupil, student and even experienced teacher whose activity is closely connected with studying or teaching a language constantly needs a good dictionary which can always help at any time.

   The material of this course work can be used by anybody who is interested in lexicography as a science and wants to know more about dictionary-making itself.