Standard English

          Both pleonasm and tautology may be acceptable in oratory inasmuch they help the audience to grasp the meaning of the utterance.

          “I’ll tell you, Governor, if you only let me get a word in. I’m willing to tell you, I’m wanting to tell you, I’m waiting to tell you.” (B.Shaw)

 Polysyndeton is an insistent repetition of a connective between words, phrases or clauses in an utterance. It produces a certain rhythmical effect; it makes each word or sentence separated by the connective more isolated and independent, more prominent.

         “The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect.” (Ch.Dickens)

        “They were all three from Milan and one of them was to be a lawyer, and one was to be a painter, and one had intended to be a soldier, and after we were finished with the machines, sometimes we walked back together to the Café Cova.” (E.Hemingway)

Asyndeton, on the contrary is a deliberate avoidance of the connective where it is expected to be according to the norms of the literary language. It makes the narration laconic and energetic.

       “He never tired of their (pictures) presence; they represented a substantial saving in death-duties.” (G.Green) /for, because/

        “Soams turned away; he had an utter disinclination for talk, like one standing before an open grave, watching a coffin slowly lowered.” (J.Galsworthy)  /for/  (Semicolon, being an indication of a longish pause, breaks the utterance into two parts.)

        “Bicket did not answer his throat felt too dry.” (Galsworthy)  (The absence of the conjunction and a punctuation mark may be regarded as a deliberate introduction of the norms of  colloquial speech into the literary language. It makes the utterance sound like one syntactical unit to be pronounced in one breath group.)

         Not all cases of asyndeton are used as expressive means of the language. Thus the omission of the conjunction “that” introducing the objective and the attributive clauses is widely used and has lost its stylistic colouring.

         “He said he had seen it before.”

         “The man we met yesterday rang her up”

Enumeration is a stylistic device by means of which homogeneous parts of an utterance are made heterogeneous from the semantic point of view.

“Famine, despair, cold, thirst and heat had done

         Their work on them by turns, and thinn’d them too…” (G.G.Byron)   (There is nothing specially to arrest the reader’s attention; each word is closely associated semantically with the following and preceding words in the enumeration.)

         “Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his sole assign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole friend and his sole mourner.”(Ch.Dickens)    (The enumeration here is heterogeneous; the legal terms placed in a string with such words as ‘friend’ and ’mourner’ result in a kind of clash.)          

         “…he could concentrate immediate attention on the donkeys and tumbling bells, the priests, patios, beggars, children, crowing cocks, sombreros, cactus-hedges, old high white villages, goats, olive-trees, greening plains, singing birds in tiny cages, water-sellers, sunsets, melons, mules, great churches, pictures, and swimming gray-brown mountains of a fascinating land.” (Galsworthy)   (Heterogeneous enumeration is used to depict scenery through a tourist’s eyes.)

Suspense (retardation) is a deliberate delay in the completion of the expressed thought. What has been delayed is the loading task of the utterance. Suspense is achieved by a repeated occurrence of phrases or clauses expressing condition, supposition, time, and the like, all of which hold back the conclusion of the utterance. Suspense always requires long stretches of speech or writing. Due to its partly psychological nature (it arouses a feeling of expectation), suspense is framed in one sentence, for there must not be any break in the intonation pattern. The device is favoured by the orators.   

            “Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was obliging enough to read and explain me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw.” (Ch.Lamb)

            “If you can keep your head when all about you                                    Are losing theirs and blaming it on you,

If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you  

                                           And make allowance for their doubting too,

          ……………………………………………    

 If you can dream and not make dreams your master,    

If you can think and not make thoughts your aim,     …………………………………………………..  

Your’s is the earth and everything that’s in it,…    

And which is more, you’ll be a Man, my son.”    (R.Kipling “If”)    

Climax (Gradation) is an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance.

Emotional climax is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning.

“It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a veritable gem of a city.”

“I was well inclined to him before I saw him. I liked him. I liked him when I did see him; I admire him now.” (Ch.Bronte)

“I’m a bad man, a wicked man, but she is worse. She is really bad. She is bad, she is badness. She is Evil. She not only is evil, but she is Evil.” (J.O’Hara)

Logical climax is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them.

“A storm is coming up. A hurricane. A deluge.” (Th.Wilder)

Quantitative climax is an increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts.

“They looked at hundreds of houses; they climbed thousands of stairs; they inspected innumerable kitchens.”(S.Maugham)

“Little by little, bit by bit, and day by day, and year by year the baron got the worst of some disputed question.” (Ch.Dickens) 

Sometimes lexical units cannot be considered as more emotional or less emotional, more important, or less important, but as soon as they are arranged in a certain sequence they acquire a graded quality. A lexical unit may seem to be emotionally stronger by the mere fact that it is placed last in the sequence of syntactically identical units.

“He lived – he breathed – he moved – he felt.” (G.G.Byron)

Anticlimax {Bathos) is the reverse of climax. It is a device (not linguistic but literary) in which emotion or logical importance accumulates only to be unexpectedly broken and brought down. The sudden reversal usually brings forth a humorous or ironic effect due to the sudden drop from the serious to the ridiculous.

“Women have wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything – except the obvious.” (O.Wilde)

“…they …were absolutely quiet; eating no apples, cutting no names, inflicting no pinches, and making no grimaces, for full two minutes afterwards.” (Ch.Dickens)

Antithesis is a phrase, a sentence or a group of such in which a thing (or a concept) is contrasted to its opposite.

Logical opposition is based on contrasting pairs of words, antonyms.

“A saint abroad, and a devil at home.”(Bunyan)

“Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven.” (Milton)

Stylistic opposition is based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs.

Antithesis is generally moulded in parallel construction. /Asyndeton; conjunctions “and”, “but”/

“Youth is lovely, age is lonely,

Youth is fiery, age is frosty;” (Longfellow)

(1) Antithesis is used to characterize one object, to show its complicated and controversial nature.

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we are all going direct the other way…” (Ch.Dickens)

(2)   It is also used to give different characteristics to two different objects to show their dissimilarity.

“His fees were high, his lessons were light.” (O.Henry)

Ellipsis is an intentional omission from an utterance of one or both main members of the sentence (subject or predicate). An elliptical sentence in direct intercourse is not a stylistic device. It is simply a norm of the spoken language. Ellipsis makes the narration more careless, or laconic, or energetic. In the speech of literary characters ellipsis makes the dialogue more natural.

“Very windy, isn’t it?” said Strachan, when the silence had lasted some time.

“Very,” said Wimsey.

“But it’s not raining,” pursued Strachan.

“Not yet,” said Wimsey.

“Better than yesterday,” said Strachan.

“Tons better…”   (D.Sayers)

Due to ellipsis author’s narration is made more concise and emotional. It changes its tempo.

“Fast asleep – no passion in the face, no avarice, no anxiety, no wild desire; all gentle, tranquil, and at peace.” (Ch.Dickens)

Aposiopesis, a sudden intentional break in the narration or dialogue, is a figure of speech based upon aesthetic principle of incomplete representation. What is not finished is implied: the sense of the unexpressed is driven inside and the reader is expected to find it for himself, the context being his guide. As a stylistic device it is used to indicate strong emotions paralyzing the character’s speech or his deliberate stop in the utterance to conceal its meaning. Aposiopesis is often used in complex sentences, in particular, in conditional sentences, the if-clauses being given in full and the second part only implied. It has a strong degree of predictability. The graphic indication of an aposiopesis is, as a rule, a dash or dots. The context and adequate intonation make the communicative significance of the utterance clear.

“‘I hope – ‘ began the stewardess. Then she turned round and looked a long mournful look at Grandma’s blackness and at Fenella’s black coat and skirt, black blouse, and hat with a crape rose.” (K.Mansfield)

“My God! If the police comes…”

“If you go on to live like that, in six months’ time …”

“Good intentions but…”

Represented speech is that form of utterance which conveys the actual words of the speaker through the mouth of the writer but retains the peculiarities of the speaker’s mode of expression. Represented speech exists in two varieties.

Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to past and that the personal pronouns should be changed from 1^st and 2^nd person to 3^rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance does not change.

“A maid came in now with a blue gown very thick and soft. Could she do anything for Miss Freelan? No, thanks, she could not; only, did she know where Mr.Freelan’s room was?”

Unuttered (Inner) represented speech expresses feelings and thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written language. It abounds in exclamatory words and phrases, elliptical constrictions, breaks and other means of conveying the feelings and psychological state of the character. Unuttered represented speech follows the same morphological pattern as uttered represented speech, but the syntactical pattern shows variations. The tense forms are shifted to the past; the 3^rd person personal pronouns replace the first and second. The interrogative word order is maintained as in direct speech. The fragmentary character of the utterance manifests itself in unfinished sentences, exclamations and one-member sentences. It is usually introduced by verbs of mental perception (think, understand, feel, occur, wonder, ask, tell oneself, understand, etc.) Very frequently inner represented speech thrusts itself into narrative of the author without any introductory words and the shift from the author’s  speech to inner represented speech is more or less imperseptrible.

“Over and over he was asking himself: would she receive him? would she recognize him? what should he say to her?”

“Then, too, in old Jolyon’s mind was always the secret ache that the son of James - of James, whom he had always thought such a poor thing, should be pursuing the paths of success, while his own son - !” (J.Galsworthy)

The essence of rhetorical question consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. The question is no longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of interrogative sentence. There is an interplay of two structural meanings: 1) that of the question and 2) that of the statement. Rhetorical questions may be looked upon as a transference of grammatical meaning. There is always an additional shade of emotive meaning and modality implied in negative-interrogative sentences (doubt, assertion, suggestion). Rhetorical question presupposes the possible (though not demanded) answer: the positive form of the rhetorical question predicts the negative answer, the negative form – the positive answer.

“Gentleness in passion! What could have been more seductive to the scared, starved heart of that girl?” (J.Conrad)

“What courage can withstand the ever during and all besetting terrors of a woman’s tongue?” (W.Irwing)

“Is there not blood enough upon your penal code, that more must be poured forth to ascend to Heaven and testify against you?” (G.G.Byron)

Litotes, a specific form of understatement, consists in the use of a negative for the contrary. The negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or thing. Litotes presupposes double negation; one - through the negative particle no or not; the other – through a) word with a negative affix (‘not hopeless’); b) a word with a negative or derogative meaning (‘not a coward’); c) a negative construction (‘not without love’); d) an adjective or adverb preceded by too (‘not too awful’). The stylistic function of all these types is to convey the doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristic of the object in question.

“He had not been unhappy all day.” (E.Hemingway)

“Mr.Badrell was a man of honour – Mr. Badrell was a man of his word – Mr. Badrell was no deceiver…” (Ch.Dickens)

 

Graphic expressive means

Graphic expressive means serve to convey in writing the emotions that are expressed in oral speech by intonation and stress.

Punctuation The use of punctuation marks (colon, semicolon, comma, dash, suspension marks /dots/, exclamation mark, question mark, brackets, inverted commas) gives the text additional emotional colouring.

Question mark and exclamation mark have very special meaning. They denote ironic attitude of the speaker to the idea expressed or to show his irritation and indignation.

“Father! Please – not that!”

“Well! And you think it doesn’t matter?”

Emotional pauses are marked by a dash or suspension marks. They show the uncertainty, embarrassment, nervousness of the character. They may also be used together with a time-filler (er, ugh, well, so).

“Who is he? – Oh, he’s a…kind of acquaintance, that is to say, you understand…”

“You come here after dark, and you go after dark. It’s so – so ignoble.” (G.Green)

The inverted commas usually indicate the direct speech or the quotation. They may also indicate the represented speech. Sometimes they are used when a word is used in an unusual meaning.

The peculiarities of the print

Bald print and spacing are used instead of usual print to give prominence to some part of the text.

The use of capital letters instead of small letters to place special emphasis on the idea or in case of address or personification.

“If way to the Better there be, it exacts a full look at the Worst” (Th.Hardy)

“O Music! Sphere-descended maid,

Friend of Pleasure, Wisdom’s aid!” (W.Collins)

            The use of italics. The writers italicize epigraphs, quotations, the words of some other language, the titles of the mentioned books. Many auxiliaries and pronouns that are usually unstressed are italicized if special emphasis is placed on them.

            ”…his liver was a little constricted, and his nerves rather on edge. His wife was always out when she was in Town, and his daughter would flibberty-gibbet all over the place.”(J.Galsworthy)

Changes in spelling are used to emphasize a word or its part (repetition of a letter “laaarge”, “rrruin”; hyphenated spelling of a word “des-pise”, “g-irl”) or to indicate the peculiarities in the pronunciation of a character when he violates the phonetic norms.

 

Morphological expressive means

The use of the Present Indefinite instead of the Past Indefinite – the Historical Present.

           In describing some past events the author uses the present tense, thus achieving a more vivid picturisation of what was going on.

The use of shall in the second and third person   may also be regarded as an expressive means. Compare:

“He shall do it”(= I shall make him do it)  In such cases shall always gets emphatic stress.

He has to do it (= It is necessary for him to do it).

Word-building expressive means

         Connotational potential of an affix.

Suffix  ‘-ish’    -   

Added to adjectives: brown – brownish (emotionally neutral variant – shows the  presence of a small amount of some quality);

baldish, biggish, dullish  (‘tactful’ words, occasionalisms);

Added to noun: childish, doggish, goatish, sheepish (adjectives with a negative, sometimes contemptuous, connotation); girlish, boyish – exceptions;

Added to compound words: stand-offish, honey-moonish (strengthens the negative attitude of the speaker or writer);

Added to names;   Dickenish,    Mark Twainish       (adds scornful shade of meaning);

But suffix ‘-ian’ can give some elevation characteristic of bookish style:  Darwinian, Dickensian , Shakespearian.                           

The most important noun suffixes giving negative connotation are:

‘-a rd ‘  -  drunkard, coward;

‘-ster’   -  gangster, hipster, oldster;

‘-eer’    -  profiteer, black-marketeer. 

Some negative affixes are expressive, their expressiveness being based on imagery. The negation can be looked upon as a compressed one-member antithesis.

unbending   -     rigid                    

unerring      -     accurate            (The synonyms have no negative affixes.)

unmask       -      reveal 

“Blow, blow thou winter wind

Thou art not so unkind

As man’s ingratitude.” (W.Shakespeare) 

The diminutive suffixes add some emotional colouring to the words. They indicate not only small dimensions of the object but also the attitude of the speaker or writer (tenderness, scorn, joke).

-y(ie)           -      daddy, lassie, dearie, oldie;

-let               -      chicklet, streamlet, starlet;

-kin              -      lambkin.          

 Word-building models

Models of compound words where humorous impression is produced by unusual valence of the words.

boy-friend-in- chief  (compare: Commander In –Chief)

Сompound words (blackleg, cutthroat, sawbones).

Compound words built according to the phrase models (Miss what’s her name) usually have negative connotation.

Words with ‘lad’, ‘boy’,’  lass’ sound affectionately and have positive connotation. They belong to the colloquial style (Johnny-lad, Johnny-boy, Katy-lass).

Phrasal verbs are expressive and often have colloquial colouring, but they do not have emotional colouring.  Their derivatives have attitudinal connotation (a pin-up, a pick-up).