Шпаргалка по "английскому языку2

1.Travelling/Holidays

Modern life is impossible without travelling. Thousands of people travel every day either on business or for pleasure. They can travel by air, by rail, by sea or by road. Of course, travelling by air is the fastest and the most convenient way, but it is the most expensive too. Travelling by train is slower than by plane, but it has its advantages. You can see much more interesting places of the country you are travelling through. Modern trains have very comfortable seats. There are also sleeping cars and dining cars which make even the longest journey enjoyable. Speed, comfort and safety are the main advantages of trains and planes. That is why many people prefer them to all other means. Travelling by sea is very popular. Large ships and small river boats can visit foreign countries and differentplaces of interest within their own country.

As for me, I prefer travelling by car I think It's very convenient. You needn't reserve tour tickets. You needn't carry heavy suitcases. You can stop wherever you wish, and spend at any place as much time as you like. Every year my friend and I go somewhere to the South for holidays. The Black Sea is one of the most wonderful places which attracts holiday-makers all over the world. There are many rest-homes, sanatoriums and tourist camps there. But it is also possible to rent a room or a furnished house for a couple of weeks there. Sometimes, we can place ourselves in a tent on the sea shore enjoying fresh air and the sun all day long.

As a rule, I make new friends there. In the day-time we play volleyball, tennis, swim in the warm water of the sea and sunbathe. In the evening I like to sit on the beach watching the sea and enjoying the sunset. I'm fond of mountaineering. So I do a lot of climbing together with my friends. Time passes quickly and soon we have to make our way back. We return home sunburnt and of impressions.

2.My future profession

I study at MHI. This is my second year here. I have always wanted to enter this university,because it is really good and keeps high standards and quality of teaching. Futhermore, the university is very modern and exclusive. I am very proud of being a student of this university.

I have chosen studies of law . That means I want to be a lawyer or to work some kind of juridical work. I think law is interesting and attractive subject to study. Besides, it is very useful to gain knowledge about law nowadays,because there are so much unfairness and cruelty in our society. There is lack of people who fight against these negative phenomena. So I am going to do that and to try to make our future life better and easier.

I have decided to connect my future with law, so I hope that lawyer's profession will always be very popular, needful and promising. I will try to do my best in studying law, to take everything that the university can suggest to it's students in order to make my studies qualitative and meaningful and to become a professional lawyer.

3. The need for law (law and society)

The function of law in a society is more or less universal. It acts as a deterrent to control the evil and treacherous behavior of humans, to maintain discipline and imposes restrictions on some freedom. We live in a chaotic and uncertain world. Without an orderly environment based on and backed by law, the normal activities of life would be lacerated with chaos. Law is a social norm, the infraction of which is sanctioned in treat or in fact by the application of physical force or by a party possessing the socially recognized privilege or so acting. It prevents the state of nature, which would be total anarchy had there been no laws. In the United States the respect for the law is paramount and disobedience to the law is punished. Some examples of this are freedom of speech, religion, the press, the right to a fair trail and the freedom from cruel and unusual punishment. Laws are in acted daily through out different societies for the protection and security of individuals, property, businesses and states. It permits an orderly, peaceful process for dispute resolution and provides us with the programs to establish and enable corporately, what would be impossible, or at least prohibitive, to do as individuals. With out it, most societies would succumb to disorder. Law and the predictability it provides cannot guarantee us a totally safe world, but it can create a climate in which people believe it is worthwhile to produce, venture fort, and to live for the morrow. Laws should be designed to protect the individual personal and civil rights against those forces, which would curtail or restrict them. Societies today are more complex and interacting. Many societies have law and rules to prevent lawlessness and anarchy. Maintaining good order and discipline have far reaching implications on a society"tms prosperity. The Constitution, acts of Legislative bodies, orders of Rulings of Political Executives, Judicial Decisions and Decisions of Quasi-Legislative and Quasi-Judicial Bodies enact laws in the United States.

4. Criminology

Criminology is a social science dealing with the nature, extent, and causes of crime; the characteristics of criminals and their organizations; the problems of apprehending and convicting offenders; the operation of prisons and other correctional institutions; the rehabilitation of convicts both in and out of prison; and the prevention of crime.

The science of criminology has two basic objectives: to determine the causes, whether personal or social, of criminal behavior and to evolve valid principles for the social control of crime. In pursuing these objectives, criminology draws on the findings of biology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, anthropology, and related fields.

Criminology originated in the late 18th century. During the 19th century the positivist school attempted to extend scientific neutrality to the understanding of crime.

Criminologists commonly use several research techniques. The typological method involves classifying offenses, criminals, or criminal areas according to various criteria. Sociological research, which may involve many different techniques, is used in criminology to study groups, subcultures, and gangs as well as rates and kinds of crime within geographic areas.

Criminology has many practical applications. Its findings can give lawyers, judges, and prison officials a better understanding of criminals, which may lead to more effective treatment. Criminological research can be used by legislators and in the reform of laws and of penal institutions.

12.Negotiations

Good negotiators try to create a harmonious atmosphere at the start of a negotiation. They generally wish to reach an agreement which meets the interests of both sides. On the other hand, a poor negotiator tends to look for immediate gains, forgetting that the real benefits of a deal may come much later. Skilful negotiators are flexible. They have a range of objectives, thus allowing themselves to make concessions. Poor negotiators have limited objectives. They may not even work out a fall-back position. Successful negotiators don`t want a negotiation to break down. The best negotiators are persuasive, articulate people. Finally, it`s essential to be a good listener and to check frequently that everything has been understood by both parties.

6. Punishment

Punishment describes the imposition by some authority of a deprivation - usually painful - on a person who has violated a law, a rule, or other norm.  When the violation is of the criminal law of society there is a formal process of accusation and proof followed by imposition of a sentence by a designated official, usually a judge.

In Western culture, four basic justifications have been given: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation.

Most penal historians note a gradual trend over the last centuries toward more lenient sentences in Western countries. Capital and corporal punishment, widespread in the early 19^th century, are seldom invoked by contemporary society.

Criminal sentences ordinarily embrace four basic modes of punishment. In descending order of severity these are: incarceration, community supervision, fine, and restitution. The death penalty is now possible only for certain types of atrocious murders and treason.

Punishment is an ancient practice whose presence in modern cultures may appear to be out of place because it purposefully inflicts pain.  In the minds of most people, however, it continues to find justification.

7.Treatment of criminals

Various correctional approaches developed in the wake of causation theories. The old theological and moralistic theories encouraged punishment as retribution by society for evil. This attitude, indeed, still exists. The 19th-century British jurist and philosopher Jeremy Bentham tried to make the punishment more precisely fit the crime. He argued that criminals would be deterred from crime if they knew, specifically, the suffering they would experience if caught. Bentham therefore urged definite, inflexible penalties for each class of crime.

At about the same time, the so-called Italian school stressed measures for preventing crime rather than punishing it. Members of this school argued that individuals are shaped by forces beyond their control and therefore cannot be held fully responsible for their crimes.

The modern approach to the treatment of criminals owes most to psychiatric and case-study methods. The contemporary scientific attitude is that criminals are individual personalities and that their rehabilitation can be brought about only through individual treatment.

During recent years, crime has been under attack from many directions. The treatment and rehabilitation of criminals has improved in many areas. The emotional problems of convicts have been studied and efforts have been made to help such offenders. Various states have agencies with programs of reform and rehabilitation for both adult and juvenile offenders.

Criminologists recognize that both adult and juvenile crime stem chiefly from the breakdown of traditional social norms and controls. Although the crime rate has not drastically diminished as a result of these efforts, it is hoped that the extension and improvement of all valid approaches to prevention of crime eventually will reduce its incidence.

8.Examples of well-known crimes

Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority (via mechanisms such as legal systems) can ultimately prescribe a conviction. Individual human societies may each define crime and crimes differently. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime; for example: breaches of contract and of other civil law may rank as "offences" or as "infractions". Modern societies generally regard crimes as offences against the public or the state, distinguished from torts

There are many different types of crime. This website focuses on crimes against the person such as violent attacks, robberies, family violence and sexual assault.

For some crimes, there are special arrangements and support services to help victims and their families. There are also different court processes depending on the type of crime that was committed.

To find out what special arrangements and support there are for you, choose the type of crime relevant to your situation.

11. Police powers (detention, treatment, questioning)

The powers of the police in England and Wales are defined largely by statute law, with the main sources of power being the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and the Police Act 1996. This article covers the powers of territorial police forces only. In law, police powers are given to "constables" - this means both full-time and volunteer police officers (known as special constables). There are four main powers that constables have that normal members of the public don't - the power to detain people, the power to search people/vehicles/objects and places, the power to arrest people and the power to enter property. Typically, the level of power available varies with the status of the person it is being used against - the police have different powers over people they have arrested compared with those who have not been arrested.

The treatment of suspects held in detention is governed by Code H to the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 in the case of suspects related to terrorism and by Code C in other cases. It is generally the responsibility of a designated Custody Officer to ensure that the provisions of the relevant Code and of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 are not breached. [14]

In particular, a person detained has the following rights; and must be informed of these rights at the earliest opportunity:

to have one friend or relative or other person who is known to him or who is likely to take an interest in his welfare told that he has been arrested and where he is being detained [15] ; and

to consult a solicitor.

When can the police question you

The police should not question you with a view to getting evidence until they have cautioned you. If you have been arrested, you must not be interviewed before being taken to the police station unless:

delay could lead to interference with or harm to evidence connected with the offence

delay could lead to physical harm to others

delay would alert someone suspected of committing an offence who has not yet been arrested

delay would hinder the recovery of property that is the subject of the offence.

If you are cautioned without having been arrested, you must be told you are free to leave whenever you want.

9. The British police

The British police officer, sometimes called the “bobby”  after Sir Robert Peel, the founder of the police force – is a well-known figure to anyone who has visited Britain or who has seen British films. Policemen and policewomen are to be seen in towns and cities keeping law and order, either walking in the streets (“pounding the beat”) or driving in cars (known as “panda cars” because of their distinctive markings). The police have regular meetings with social workers, community readers and health officers. They visit schools and talk to children. In some districts primary schools have “adopted”  police officers who take on a school as their special responsibility. They play with the children and talk to them and try to show them that the police are their friends to whom they can go if they are in trouble.

Few people realize that the police in Britain are organized very differently from many other countries.

Most countries, for example, have a national police force which is controlled by the central government. Britain has no national police force, although police policy is governed by the central government’s Home Office. Instead, there is a separate police force for each of the 52 areas into which the country is divided. Each has a police authority – a committee of local county counselors and magistrates.

The forces co-operate with each other, but it is unusual for members of one force to operate in another area unless they are asked to give assistance. This sometimes happens when there has been a very serious crime. A Chief Constable, who is the most senior police officer of a force, may sometimes ask for the assistance of London’s police force, based at New Scotland Yard known simply as “the Yard”.

In most countries, the police carry guns. The British police generally do not carry firearms, except in Northern Ireland. They aren’t armed to avoid street gunfights in which innocent people might get killed. In the Metropolitan Police Force (London) over 16 per cent are trained to use firearms, but in Avon and Somerset, only 4 per cent. The average is about 10 per cent – well below that of any other police force in the world. A few police men are regularly armed, for instance, those who guard politicians and diplomats or who patrol airports. In certain curcumstances specially trained police officers can be armed, but only with the signed permission of a magistrate.

All members of the police must have gained a certain level of academic qualifications at school and undergone a period of intensive training. Today it is part of the training

5.The causes of crime

No one knows why crime occurs. The oldest theory, based on theology and ethics, is that criminals are perverse persons who deliberately commit crimes or who do so at the instigation of the devil or other evil spirits.

Since the 18^th century, various scientific theories have been advanced to explain crime. One of the first efforts to explain crime on scientific, rather than theological, grounds was made at the end of the 18th century by the German physician and anatomist Franz Joseph Gall, who tried to establish relationships between skull structure and criminal proclivities. A more sophisticated theory – a biological one – was developed late in the 19^th century by the Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who asserted that crimes were committed by persons who are born with certain recognizable hereditary physical traits. Lombroso's theory was disproved early in the 20^th century by the British criminologist Charles Goring.Some investigators still hold, however, that specific abnormalities of the brain and of the endocrine system contribute to a person's inclination toward criminal activity.

Another approach to an explanation of crime was initiated by the French political philosopher Montesquieu, who attempted to relate criminal behavior to natural, or physical environment. His successors have gathered evidence tending to show that crimes against person, such as homicide, are relatively more numerous in warm climates, whereas crimes against property, such as theft, are more frequent in colder regions.

Many prominent criminologists of the 19^th century, particularly those associated with the Socialist movement, attributed crime mainly to the influence of poverty. They pointed out that persons who are unable to provide adequately for themselves and their families through normal legal channels are frequently driven to theft, burglary, prostitution, and other offences. The incidence of crime especially tends to rise in times of widespread unemployment.

Some theorists relate the incidence of crime to the general state of a culture, especially the impact of economic crises, wars, and revolutions and the general sense of insecurity and uprootedness to which these forces give rise. As a society becomes more unsettled and its people more restless and fearful of the future, the crime rate tends to rise.

The final major group of theories are psychological and psychiatric. Studies by such 20^th century investigators as the American criminologist Bernard Glueck and the British psychiatrist William Healy indicated that about one-fourth of a typical convict population is psychotic, neurotic, or emotionally unstable and another one-fourth is mentally deficient. Recent studies of criminals have thrown further light on the kinds of emotional disturbances that may lead to criminal behavior.

Since the mid-20^th century, the notion that crime can be explained by any single theory has fallen into disfavour among investigators. Instead, experts incline to so-called multiple factor, or multiple causation theories.

10. Police powers (stop, search, arrest)

Many people are unaware of their stop, search and arrest rights. The police do have legal powers to stop, search, and arrest but only under certain conditions. However, new legislation means that these conditions have been extended and the police can stop and search without the need to give a reason under special circumstances.

The police can stop and search any person, vehicle, and anything in or on the vehicle for certain items. However, before they stop and search they must have reasonable grounds for suspecting that they will find:stolen goods, or drugs, or an offensive weapon, or any article made or adapted for use in certain offences, for example a burglary or theft, or knives, or items which could damage or destroy property, for example spray paint cans.

There are a few exceptions to this rule. If a serious violent incident has taken place, the police can stop and search you without having reasonable grounds for suspecting they will find the items.

The police can also search a football coach going to or from a football match if they have reasonable grounds for suspecting there is alcohol on board or that someone is drunk on the coach.

The police can also stop and search you or your vehicle if they reasonably suspect you of terrorist activity. They can't stop and search you just for being in a particular area, unless they reasonably suspect you of terrorist activity.

But the police do not have the right to stop and search you just because of your race or religious background.

When the police stop to search you, they must provide you with the following information or the search can't begin:

proof of their warrant card

information on police powers to stop and search

your rights

the police officer's name and police station

the reason for the search

what they think they might find when they search you

a copy of the search record.

In all of these situations where the police have a right to stop and search, they should not require you to take off in public any clothing other than an outer coat, jacket or gloves.

A more thorough search or a strip search may take place in private, for example in a police van. A strip search must be made by a police officer of the same sex.

If you are arrested, the police can search you for anything you might use to help you escape or for evidence relating to the offence that has led to your arrest.

In some circumstances a police officer of the rank of inspector or above can give the police permission to make stops and searches in an area for a certain amount of time - as long as this is for no more than 24 hours. When this permission is in force the police can search for offensive weapons or dangerous instruments whether or not they have grounds for suspecting that people are carrying these items. An officer with the rank of assistant chief constable or above can also give permission for searches in an area in order to prevent acts of terrorism.

You can get more information on your rights when the police stop and search you on the Association of Police Authorities website at: www.apa.police.uk. There is an easy-read version and the information has also been translated into a number of community languages.

Where can the police search you

The police can search you in any place that is generally open to the public. This means they can search you anywhere other than your home and your garden, or the home or garden of someone who has given you permission to be there. If the police have reasonable grounds for believing that you are not, in fact, in your own home or that you are somewhere without the permission of the homeowner, they can search you. There are separate rules about when the police have powers to enter your own home – see under heading Powers of entry.

Can the police use force

The police can use reasonable force when they stop and search, but must make every effort to persuade you to co-operate. They should only use force as a last resort.

What information should a police officer give you before carrying out a search

Before searching, the police officer should tell you that you are being detained for the purposes of a search. The police officer should also give you their name, the name of their police station, the object of the search and their grounds or authorisation for making the search. If the search is connected to terrorism, the officer can give their police number instead of their name. You should also be told that you have a right to a copy of the record of the search. If it is impractical to make a record of the search there and then, the police officer will tell you that you have the right to apply for a copy, as long as you do so within 12 month

2.Checking out of the hotel 

Receptionist: —Good morning. May I help you?

Daniel Adams: —Yes, I´d like to check out now. My name´s Adams, room 312. Here´s the key.

Receptionist: —One moment, please, sir. ... Here´s your bill. Would you like to check and see if the amount is correct?

Daniel Adams: —What´s the 14 pounds for?

Receptionist: —That´s for the phone calls you made from your room.

Daniel Adams: —Can I pay with traveller´s cheques?

Receptionist: —Certainly. May I have your passport, please?

Daniel Adams: —Here you are.

Receptionist: —Could you sign each cheque here for me?

Daniel Adams: —Sure.

Receptionist: —Here are your receipt and your change, sir. Thank you.

Daniel Adams: —Thank you. Goodbye.

6.At  the inquiry office

-Good morning.

-Good morning,sir.

-I`ve found out from this time table that there are several trains to Glasgow.

-Yes,quite so.

-Is there a second-class sleeper on the overnight express which leaves at 10.15 p.m.?

-Yes.The train has sleeping accommodation.

-What time does the train get to Glasgow?

-It`s due to arrive in Glasgow at 6.30 a.m. It usually runs on time.

5.Talk in the booking office

-I`d like 3 tickets to Glasgow for tomorrow.

-Which train?

-The 20.15 express.

-Second class?

-Yes.Second class sleeper.

-Single or return?

-3 returns tickets,please.

-Just a minute. Let me see. Yes. I can give you 3 berth in one compartment. Here you are.

-Thank you.

8.Talk in the airport

-Hello,Pete! I`m sorry I`m late. When did you arrive?

-Hi,John. I got here at seven thirty. We were a half hour early.

-Did you get your suitcases?

-No,I didn`t pick them up. They are in the baggage room.

-I got your telegram yesterday.Did you have a jolly trip?

-Well,it was a great fun,but in the end I got home sick.

-That`s why they say : «East or West – home is best.»

3.Talk on the platform

-Good evening,…

-Good evening.

-What platform is our train leaving from?

-Platform 2. This way, please. Here is our carriage. Put your suitcase on the laggage rack here.

-All right. Is there a buffet car on the train,…? I`d like to have a snack.

-I was just about to tell you, that there was no buffet car on the train and we would have to do without supper. But I`m sure we can get a snack at a cafeteria in the station.

-I`d like to but don`t you think we can miss the train?

-Oh,no. It won`t take us long.

4.Talk in the carriage

-Well, we`re moving at last. The train seems to be not croweded.

-Not so overcrowded as at the rush tourist time in summer.

-Quite true. Lots of people are holidaying in summer.

-Well, it feels pretty hot here. Would you mind my opening the window?

-Not at all, I think fresh air will do us good.

1.In the hotel

- Hello!

- My name is Tim Smith. I reserved a room in your hotel one week ago.

- Could you repeat your name, please?

- Tim Smith.

- One moment. Yes, there is a double reserved for you for two weeks.

- But I arrived alone, and I’d like to change the room.

- Yes, of course. We can offer you a single room on the nineth floor.

- How much is the room a day?

- Five hundred roubles. Does this room suit you?

- Yes.

- Then your room number is 935. Please, fill in this form. Here’s you key

- Where can I have lunch?

- The restaurant is on the fourth floor*. You can also order lunch by phone.

- Good. Is there an Intenet access in the hotel?

- Yes. The Internet café is on the second floor.

- Great.

- There is also a hairdresser, dry cleaner’s and laundry on the first floor.

- Thank you. I want to go up to my room now.

- The elevator is straight ahead. If you have any problems, contact the administrator. You should press the call button for this. Have a good night!

- Thank you.