Non-verbal communication

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

 

I.  CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

 

Some estimate that non-verbal communication makes up anywhere from 65% to 90% of the meaning in an interaction.  But how is non-verbal defined & distinguished from verbal communication?

 

A.  Stewart & Logan's view (see chart, p. 53 in Bridges, Not Walls):

 

Oral    Non-oral

 

Verbal   Spoken words   Written words

                                                    

 

Nonverbal  Paralanguage   body movements,

touch, etc.

 

Both verbal and non-verbal communication are governed by rules, and are learned within a particular culture.

 

B.  Another way of looking at this question is to consider the distinctions/connections between verbal and non-verbal communication:

 

1.  v--discrete; nv—more continuous & analogic

2.  v--single channeled; nv—multi-channeled

3.  v--more "voluntary"; nv--more "involuntary" (more subconscious, harder to control)

4.  v--more content; nv--more relationship

5.  nv is even more ambiguous than v

 

C.  Or you can look at how non-verbal communication functions in relation to verbal communication:

 

1. To supplement v

1. repeat v (can be at same time or after, such as making sïlent gesture after saying ¨be quiet)
2. complement v (e.g. you smile when happy)
3. accent v (emphasize v, such as yelling when angry)

2.  To substitute for v (replace v)

3.  To regulate v (as in turn-taking, leave taking, power & immediacy)

4.  To contradict v (e.g. you smile when angry; we believe non-verbal more than verbal)

 

 

D.  Mehrabian (1976) notes three general dimensions of non-verbal behaviors:

 

1.  Liking--disliking (attraction; often seen in synchronized or mirroring behaviors)

2.  Dominance---submission (power cues)

3.  Responsiveness (arousal & immediacy)

 

5. Others note that nonverbal communication conveys relational messages (esp. metamessages), status & power, and deception.

 

6. Universality and cross-cultural differences in non-verbal communication

 

1. Argyle (1975) notes that non-verbal channels are similar across cultures, and that they are used for similar reasons.
2. Humans and chimps share many nonverbal behaviors, esp. facial expressions
3. Ekman & Friesen{s work suggests that there are 6 facial expressions that may be universal—happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, anger, and surprise
4. However, even if similar, how used is different
5. Lustig & Koester (1996) note 3 cultural variations of nonverbal communication:
1. there are differences in the specific repertoires of behaviors (how many behaviors are used, under what conditions, etc.)
2. each culture develops display rules for what behaviors are permitted, preferred (or even obligated), and prohibited (i.e. how to stand, look, touch, talk, etc.), which indicate differences
3. meanings that are ascribed to behaviors differ across cultures (as any study of emblems suggests)

 

7. Bernstein´s concept of Elaborated v. Restricted Codes

 

1. Elaborated codes are favored by more individualistic, low-context cultures.  Favor direct messages with verbal elaboration.  If an open system, more ambiguous roles so need more elaboration.  There isn´t a reliance on shared meaning, nor are the meanings from others assumed.  Messages often are planned (strategy is important, as is persuasion).  Found often in more pluralistic cultures, or among the more highly educated or upper classes.

 

2.  Restricted codes are favored more by collectivist, high context cultures.  Favor indirect messages without a lot of verbal elaboration (more rigid roles lessen the need for such elaboration).  Focus more on nonverbal codes, with a reliance on shared meanings (other’s intentions can be assumed).  There is an orientation toward the group, with little planning or strategizing of messages.  Found in less pluralistic cultures, or among those in the lower or working classes.

 

II.  TYPES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION (IN GENERAL)

 

A.  Forms of non-verbal communication:

 

1.  Signs (e.g. emblems; images; deaf language might fit)

2.  Actions (e.g. body movements)

3.  Objects (e.g. clothes, furniture, etc.)

4.  Places & spaces

 

B.  Typology of non-verbal behaviors:

 

1.  Proxemics--use of space & distance; environment

2.  Kinesics--"body language," esp. facial movements and gestures, but also posture, body type, orientation, etc.

3.  Haptics--touch

4.  Occulics--eye behavior

5.  Artifactual--object communication (can include clothing, property, etc.)

6.  Vocalics/paralanguage--use of voice; often includes silence

7.  Chronemics--use of time

 

III.  PROXEMICS--use of space, distance, environment, etc. as message system (E.T. Hall)

 

A.  General functions of proxemics:

 

1.  Help establish social rules and rituals (codes about what's proper--for example, we act differently at the baseball stadium than in a church)

2.  Create and maintain social hierarchies in a variety of contexts:

a.  status and power often demonstrated (e.g. through furniture, the corner office, seating arrangements, standing distances, etc.)

b.  establish control (e.g. traffic flow, access, encouragement or discouragement of interaction, etc.)

c.  "home court advantage" (extends past sports)

3.  Create & maintain ¨Cultural space¨ (home, neighborhood, region, etc.)

4.  Can be used to influence or persuade others (e.g. crowds at a seminar, layout of a shopping center, etc.)

5.  Aesthetic function--makes life more enjoyable and pleasant (e.g. trees and fountains in public buildings, use of skylights, color and lighting, "homey" touches, etc.)

6.  Information exchange--e.g. billboards (can also be persuasive), directories, etc.

6.  Claim territory and establish privacy--e.g. work cubicles, use of furniture, plants, layout, etc.  Some cultures value privacy far more than others (e.g. Germans)

 

Every culture has rules for space and distance: those from individualist cultures (e.g. U.S.)  require more space than those that are collectivist.

 

B.  Types of distance--U.S. Culture (E.T. Hall, 1959):

 

a.  intimate (0 to 18")

b.  personal (18" - 4')

c.  social (4' - 12')

d.  public (12' or more)

 

Each has a close and a far phase.  In cases when have to be in intimate space with non-intimates, we have various rules to protect our personal space bubbles.  One of these is the idea of civil inattention (not paying attention to others who have unavoidably invaded our space, as occurs often in Asia due to crowds in the street).  Different cultures have different rules for distance (e.g. People in the Netherlands sit far apart; Arabic men stand closer than American men prefer, or side by side seating in China; also there are co-culture differences, as between men & women, or African-American and Caucasions in the U.S.).

 

E.T. Hall argues that we should ¨let others set the distance¨ in interpersonal encounters, instead of expecting them to adapt to other.  By making the other person more comfortable, we can facilitate the interaction (we deal with our own discomfort first, thus bridging the interpersonal distance between us).

 

C.   Types of space (E.T. Hall):

 

1.  Fixed-featured (permanent space, such as architecture, natural structures, etc.)

2.  Semi-fixed featured (semi--permanent; can be moved, though not easily, such as cubicles, screens, large pieces of furniture, etc.)

3.  Moveable, impermanent (e.g. most furniture, personal objects, etc.)

4.  Public space--usually temporary, not heavily vested in claiming and maintaining this space.

2. Private space--personal space, which may be relatively "permanent" (e.g. our homes) or moveable (e.g. our cars); if invaded, we react strongly (see below).

 

4. Cultural Space
1. Home—where we feel safest.  May be hidden behind big yards and fences if in an individualistic culture.  Community focused cultures may have homes that open out into a central plaza or community center.
2. Neighborhood—the place where we have our homes.  May be very important in some cultures (or even within co-cultures, such as particular ethnic enclaves in U.S. cities).  Influenced by race & class issues (i.e. poor v. rich areas, ghettos, etc.), as well as social needs, family ties (esp. clannish or communal cultures), education level, etc.
3. Region and regionalism—different regions in a particular country may have an effect, esp. if there is a lot of regional pride (i.e. Basque part of Spain, Wales & Scotland in Britain, but also the U.S. South v. Yankees, etc.).
4. When we travel, we temporarily alter cultural space; migration & immigration are more permanent (maybe even forced) ways of changing cultural space.
5. Some cultural spaces can be seen as ¨postmodern” in that they are fluid, without boundaries, decentered, or comprised of a pastiche.  Neighborhoods that are very diverse can fit this category, but also attempts to create a type of space within a space (i.e. U.S. retirees in Mexico, but also having a dinner out where only speak French, when in the U.S., etc.)

 

E.  Territory/territoriality--we claim space (both public & private, temporary & permanent).  Signals ownership and status.  While all humans are presumed to be territorial, different cultures enact territoriality in different ways.  U.S. persons, both male and female, are very territorial.

 

1.  Marking territory, esp. temporary territory, can occur in a variety of ways (i.e. books or belonging at a table, sitting in the same seat every day, etc.)

 

2.  Challenges to space/encroachments on space

 

a.  violation--unwarranted use of another's territory, e.g. entering a home without permission, going into a space restricted to others (e.g. a woman entering a man's restroom, or students entering a teacher's faculty lounge, or going into a room marked "employees only" when you aren't); also includes using another's belongings without permission.

b.  invasion--entering territory and changing the meaning of that territory, such as students entering a faculty meeting (teachers will watch what they are saying), coming up to people who might have been talking about you, sitting beside someone in a public place (or any breaking the rules), etc.

c.  contamination--rendering a territory impure, such as vandalism, graffiti, leaving trash behind, smoking cigarettes or cigars, listening to boomboxes, etc.

 

3.  Defenses of territory—the extent of our defense of territory depends on the culture and its norms, who is doing the violation, in what type of territory, for what type of reason (or perceived reason).  We are more forgiving of close intimates than we are of strangers; in public places most of us will not be strong about our defense (we are likely to give in).  One possible exception might be the growing phenomenon of "road rage" in the U.S., where personal space occupies public space (a car on a road).  Others who get in our way are seen as violating our space.  Defenses range from expelling an intruder, to erecting barriers (i.e. books, but also wearing sunglasses, etc.), withdrawing, or even speaking a different language (which can be an argot or jargon).

 

F.  Other dimensions and characteristics of space:

 

1.  Mark Knapp noted that space can be characterized by degree of formality-informality (e.g. the CEO office, a church, v. a ballpark), warmth (our homes v. a classroom), familiarity (e.g. home, shopping mall), constraint (e.g. autos, prisons), distance (e.g. seats at an airport are close, but distant), public v. private, rural-urban, etc.

2.  Density (person to space ratio) influences nonverbal communication (different rules for crowded versus non-crowded space); high density may create stress or a sense of being "overloaded" with stimuli, and we have a variety of coping mechanisms; some people like more density than others, and different cultures cope with density differently.

3.  height  & angle of interaction--higher indicates more status and authority (e.g. Olympics winners' stand, judge's bench, a speaker's platform, etc.); standing more advantageous than sitting, unless in the personal territory of someone of higher status (then standing is often seen as rude or presumptuous).

3. Other elements that influence ipc interaction in space include temperature, color, lighting, design, placement of furniture, floorplans, etc. (note the "ugly room/pretty room" studies by Maslow & Mintz, etc.)

 

IV.  KINESICS--Body Language; gestures as a message system (R. Birdwhistle)

 

Gestures are essential in human interaction, and all cultures have them.  However, their meanings are learned and are both cultural and context-bound.  Gestures also are rule-governed within a particular culture, with some gestures seen as taboo.  Birdwhistle tried to make an analogy with language in his studies, though never was able to make an exact connection between linguistic units and gestural units.

 

A.  Functions of kinesics

 

1.  Create & maintain social rules (esp. ceremonial gestures like handshakes, bowing, ritualistic movements, etiquette, etc.)

2.  help establish and maintain social roles, status, hierarchy, power, control, conformity to norms, etc.

3.  Reinforce gender display (men who use "feminine" gestures are viewed negatively, females who use "masculine" gestures sometimes seen as aggressive, etc.)

4.  help develop relationships (e.g. courtship gestures, intimacy gestures, immediacy cues, etc.)

5.  provide information

6.  influence/persuade others

7.  indicate emotional states (e.g. adaptors, affect displays, leakage cues)

8.  limit and regulate behavior & communication (e.g. display rules, regulators)

9.  can be used to establish privacy or to avoid others

10.  can embody regional, ethnic or other cultural values & styles (there are gestures specific to various regions in the U.S., or to various cultures & groups)

11.  can be used to deceive others

 

 

B.  Types of Gestures--Ekman and Friesen's Typology

 

1.  Emblems/signs

a.  most denotative and iconic of gestures; tend to possess a specific verbal translation; meanings vary most over cultures

b.  used to give directions, commands, replies, express feelings, indicate physical conditions, etc.

c.  examples include obscene gestures, sports gestures, etc.

2.  Illustrators (almost always linked to spoken discourse)

a.  used to emphasize points, provide descriptive cues, reinforce ideas, indicate the end of a sentence, reveal the quality of a relationship, etc.

b.  several different types (some persons and groups are more expressive than others).  Both high and low context cultures use illustrators, though high context cultures may have more specific meanings for such gestures.  Warm cultures, such as Mediterranean, Latin American, or Arabic, use more illustrators (and more expansive gestures overall)

3.  Regulators

a.  regulate, monitor, and control behavior; structure interaction

b.  examples include turn-taking cues (requesting, maintaining, yielding, denying), greeting and leave-taking behavior, etc.  Differences in culture can create problems (i.e. a head nod in Thailand means ¨no¨ as opposed to yes, the Western goodbye wave means ¨come here¨ in Korea, etc.)

4.  adaptors

a.  mostly unconscious signals of stress, nervousness, anxiety, extra energy, attraction, relaxation, etc.

2. three basic types—self, object, other oriented
3. some ways of showing relaxation in U.S. culture are offensive to others, esp. putting one´s feet up.  In many cultures, including Arabic and Egyptian cultures, showing the bottom of the foot is an insult (and using the left hand to eat is offensive).  Putting hands on the hips is considered aggressive in the Philippines, Malaysia and Mexico.  Etc.

5.  affect displays

a.  indicate emotional states, primarily through facial movements

b.  emotional states include evaluations, interest level, empathy, as well as display rules for emotions (e.g. intensifying, de-intensifying, conveying neutrality and masking), etc.

c.  Again, varies according to culture; for example Chinese avoiding     showing emotions to save face.  May smile even if upset or angry.

 

B.  Eye Contact/Occulics—sometimes included in proxemics because regulates intercultural distance but also put into kinesics, with facial display

 

1. Functions of eye contact gazing in U. S. culture (Kendon, 1967; also Knapp):

a..  cognitive--we look away when we have difficulty encoding

b.  monitoring--we "check out" others; listeners gaze at speakers more than vice versa (women look more than men do).  In the U.S., maintaining eye contact when listening is considered a sign of respect (by paying attention), also as being more honest (in other cultures, NOT looking is the sign of respect and deference).  Yet, when speaking, people in the U.S. only briefly look at listeners prior to looking away.

c.  regulatory--forcing or suppressing a response or otherwise controlling interaction; because U.S. speakers look away when speaking, then looking at others often signals a turn;

4. signal the nature of the relationship, especially indicate degree of

arousal or involvements (e.g. pupil dilation; also staring means different things for men and for women in U.S.—if men stare at other men, it is considered aggressive; if women stare at men, it is considered a sexual invitation)

e.  compensate for physical distance

 

2.  eye avoidance--averting glances

a.  civil inattention (Goffman)--helps to maintain privacy

b.  again, cultural differences--looking away may mean respect

c.  or it could signal disinterest, dislike, or an attempt to avoid unpleasantness

d.  looking away may also heighten pleasure—i.e. in listening to music, kissing, etc.

 

C.  Body communication

 

1.  Body type/Somotype (Sheldon)--different types are considered attractive at different times and in different cultures

a.  ectomorph--naturally thin, skinny

b.  mesomorph--muscular (more men than women)

c.  endomorph--round type (more women than men, given body fat to muscle ratio)

 

2.  body orientation & position

a.  open/closed

b.  posture

 

3.  appearance

a.  cultural norms for attractiveness (including physical beauty, height, etc.); varies by time and culture (in the past, heavier appearances were desired in Western cultures; even today, both sexes get tattoos in Malaysia, etc.)

b. prejudice and discrimination may be based on appearance (e.g. skin color, weight, type of clothes, etc.)

 

4.  clothing/dress & use of artifacts

a.  reveals status, class differences, ethnic & gender difference, sub-culture orientations, emotions, conformity to norms, educational level, economic background, credibility, level of success, etc. (we also use it to make judgments about intelligence, sophistication, and morals)

2. establishes roles (e.g. uniforms, "dress for success," etc.
3. varies by culture—in many Middle Eastern or highly religious countries, conservative dress is highlighted, esp. for women (women may wear a hijab—a long coat with a scarf—or chardor, or burka)

c.  artifacts can become props or a type of style (e.g. Queen Elizabeth's handbag)

 

V.  HAPTICS--touch as a message system

 

Touch is our first sensory experience, from the waves of fluid on the fetus to the hands that hold us when we are born.  Yet, not everyone or every culture is comfortable with touch. 

 

A.  General functions of touch

a.  establish and maintain intimacy

b.  indicate support

c.  indicate dominance, control, power (e.g. superiors can touch subordinates)

d.  maintain social norms & hierarchy (e.g. greeting behaviors, esp. handshakes)

e.  convey information

f.  persuade & influence others

g.  can have both positive and negative effects

 

B.  Types of touch

1.   Ritualistic (handshakes, greeting behaviors, etc.—often automatic)

2. Social-polite (may include hugs, supportive touches, etc. but not too intimate)
3. Functional-professional or task-oriented

4.   Affectionate--friendship or family touching which conveys intimacy, warmth, caring, support, etc.

5.   Power/Dominance

6.  Sexual touch

 

C.  Touch & culture

1.  In U.S. there are gender variables--women tend to avoid touching the opposite sex, men the same sex ; mothers touch children more than fathers

2.  cultural differences--in the Middle East, more same sex touching between men but women cannot be touched;  Asians also cannot touch the opposite sex; Thais avoid touching heads (as these are sacred); in the U.S. we get many prohibitions about touching as we grow up.

3. People in warm climates tend to touch more (and use gestures more, i.e. Latin Americans, Middle Easterners, Eastern Europeans, but also the French), while those in cold (i.e. Germans, English, Scandinavians, etc.) tend to be more touch averse.

 

 

V.  VOCALICS/PARALANGUAGE--use of the voice & silence as a message system

 

A.  Functions of paralanguage

1.  to show interest, attraction, etc.

2.  to convey information

3.  to persuade others (in U.S. culture, fast talkers are more persuasive)

4.  to indicate status, educational level, subgroup identification, etc. (impression formation)

5.  to create and maintain relationships

6.  to establish control and dominance

7.  indicate emotional states

8.  to regulate interaction (esp. through turn-taking cues)

 

B.  Vocal qualities

1.  rate (fast to slow)—Arabs, Jews, and Italians speak fast

2.  pitch (high to low)—French are often high pitched when conveying interest (easily misunderstood as anger)

3.  inflection (emphasis, stress, pitch height & variety; U.S. women tend to use more inflection than men)

4.  volume (intensity; overloud to soft)—Arabs often speak loudly to convey strength and sincerity; Thais and Japanese speak softly to convey proper manners and education

5.  articulation, enunciation (some co-cultures in U.S. very slurred)

6.  extent of articulation (drawled to clipped)

7.  resonance (deep to breathy)

8.  rythym/melody (some spoken languages very melodic)

9.  quality (e.g. throaty, nasal, muffled, shrill, etc.)