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The nature of composite sentences with specification is debated. It is not clear whether it is a variety of complex sentences or an independent syntactic connection along with coordination and subordination.A compound sentence can be complicated by subordination, likewise complex sentence can be complicated by coordination:All that I ask of you in return is that you will be a true lover, for Love is wiser than Philosophy, though he is wise, and mightier than Power, though he is mighty (It is a fusion of an allegory with a personified metaphor)
In
English subordination domineers over coordination, while in Russian
coordination domineers over subordination, be it a simple or a
composite sentence.
A Compound Sentence
Problems within a compound sentence are:
1. general notion of coordination and types of coordination;
2. the semantic volume of the coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, for;
3. the stylistic importance of parataxis.
A compound sentence has always been considered as a weak link; it was thought not to be a sentence proper. Kruizinga speaks about loose syntactic groups, not independent sentences. There were attempts to exclude the notion of a compound sentence or to employ new terms to express more exactly the grammatical peculiarities of this type: a double or a multiple sentence, a duplication of the pattern, a multiplication of the pattern: She would not eat anything and she would not sleep at all.
A compound sentence is based on coordination (parataxis) and it consists in syntactical equality of two or more parts (clauses), but this syntactical equality does not presuppose their logical semantical and communicative equality. Clauses of a compound sentence constitute a semantical, syntactical and communicative whole.
A compound sentence is structured multivariously. It can comprise 2,3,4 or more coordinate clauses which can be joined to each other syndetically, asyndetically (without connectives) or in a mixed way.
Asyndetic connection can be exemplified by the sentences The larks sprang up in front of his feet, the air was full of butterflies, the sweet fragrance rose from the wild grasses (3 clauses). I span, I wove, I kept the house, I nursed the sick, I made the garden.
Here is the sentence with a mixed coordination: Your children are murdered, your husband gone, a corpse in your bathtub, and your house is wrecked.
Types of coordination are copulative (and), disjunctive (or),adversative (but), causative-consecutive (for).
Each type of coordination is expressed by certain connectives, which are conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs and pronouns, particles, conjunctive phrases: and, but, or, for, moreover, however, whereas, either…or, on the other hand, to say nothing of…, etc.
Copulative coordination expresses simultaneous, parallel actions:
I am the poet of the body and I am the poet of the soul: the pleasures of heaven are with me and the pains of hell are with me (Whitman)
Adversative coordination denotes contrast. The second part contradicts to what is expressed in the first part:Sorrow knocked at my door, but I was afraid; ambition called me, but I dreaded the chances…(Edgar Lee Masters).
Disjunctive coordination expresses choice: Did he not give her everything or was she not everything to him.
In a sentence with a causative-consecutive coordination one clause expresses the cause of the consequence which is to be found in another clause.: Do not weep, maiden, for war is kind…(St. Crane). Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven (The Holy Scriptures)(The Bible).
Coordination is expressed primarily by coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, for, which are polysemantic, polyfunctional; each conjunction comprises the properties of the rest of coordinating conjunctions.
And is the most polyfunctional conjunction. It can substitute for other coordinating conjunctions in most cases.
Since Old English till the present time and expresses all kind of relations: copulative, disjunctive, adversative, causative-consecutive, which can be proved transformationally. And joins clauses presenting details of one whole, it can render relative connection, this connection is encountered within a complex sentence: His book was published and this pleased his vanity. => His book was published which pleased his vanity ( a continuative attributive clause)
The distinction between a compound and a complex sentence is neutralized here and we analyze it as composite sentence.
And
joins clauses with simultaneous or subsequent actions. It can express
adversative relations (Love was offered me and I shrank from its
disillusions);adversative-
Prof. I.R.Galperin distinguished a peculiar coordinative connection , calling it the gap-sentence link. It bridges a semantic gap (a semantic leap) (She and that fellow ought to be suffering, and they were in Italy. J. Galsworthy). This sort of coordination is to be found in represented speech, which represents the unuttered thoughts of characters in the writings of J. Galsworthy, K. Mansfield, D. Parker. It expresses the underlying message, suggestions, implications and associations.
The adversative conjunction but can also be polyfunctional in syntagmatics. It can express concession (though) (New skies the exile finds, but the heart is still the same. M.Helprin). It can indicate a change or break in narration or simply a turn to a new theme (He was quite a gentleman, but she had known it from the first).
As
parataxis (coordination) is less demanding than subordination,
it is of greater stylistic value. It denotes a semantic leap,, the suggested,
the unsaid, the implied. K.Mansfield, E.Hemingway, W.Saroyan masterfully
employ it. In Hemingway’s writings parataxis is the basis for reiteration.
It appeals to the subconscious. It implies something timeless, immortal,
infinite. The Biblical text (both in The Old Testament and The New Testament)
is primarily based on parataxis which expresses profound, solemn,
eternal problems. E.Hemingway borrowed parataxis from the Bible to create
his famous iceberg technique.
The Theory of the Complex Sentence
The problems to be discussed within the complex sentence are:
I. The general notion of a complex sentence.
2. The status of the subordinate clause.
3. Classifications of subordinate clauses.
3.1. The principles of classifications.
3.2. Varieties of subordinate clauses.
I. The General Notion of a Complex Sentence.
A complex sentence is a polypredicative unit built up on the principle of subordination. which varies from a close to a very loose connection with many gradations in between. The constituents of the complex sentence are traditionally called clauses. Transformationalists advanced the term “included structures” as the syntactically dependent part of the complex sentence is included (embedded) into the independent (non-included) structure.
The complex sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses – a principal clause and a subordinate clause. The two are interconnected, the very existence of either of them is supported by the existence of the other. Sub-clauses can adjoin the main clause or they can be embedded (included) into the main clause (We have engineered toys and gadgets we don’t understand and technological terrors we may not be able to control (St. King).
2. The Status of the Subordinate Clause.
The most accepted view is that a sub-clause is an explicitly predicative structure with a subject and a predicate. Many scholars hold that a clause needn’t have explicit predication (H. Poutsma, G.Curme, M.Bryant, R. Long, etc.). They treat participial, gerundial and infinitival complexes as undeveloped verbid sub-clauses (Timothy had left a lot of money, with nobody in particular to leave it to (J. Galsworthy). Prof. Y.G.Birenbaum treated participial, nounal, adjectival phrases introduced by the conjunctions while, unless, when, until as elliptical sub-clauses (He will continue talking until stopped. When traveling I have now and then watched the sunrise). We can transform these sentences into complex sentences with sub-clauses ( Until they stopped him, he will continue talking. When I was traveling, I now and then watched the sunrise). Still most linguists find these formations merely phrases, carrying implicit predicative relations.
3.1. Classifications of Subordinate Clauses.
Sub-clauses are classified on two principles: functional and categorial. As to the functional principle, they are classed on the analogy with the parts of the simple sentence. They are likened to subjects, objects, adverbial modifiers, predicative and attributes. (People treated the old as if they wanted nothing. Compare it with People treated the old with neglect). But there are clauses which do not correspond to the members of the simple sentence. Such are continuative attributive clauses (She makes me feel happy, which you have never done (I.Murdoch). Such are complement sub-clauses (It’s in Paris where we met). Such are contaminated clauses (It was as if he had been younger every spring. J. Galsworthy).The clause underlined is a result of contamination of a predicative clause and an adverbial clause of unreal comparison. In accord with the categorical principle, sub-clauses are classed into nounal, adjectival and adverbial clauses, as here they are likened to the classes of words (nouns, adjectives and adverbs). Both principles are mutually complementary.
3.2. Types of Subordinate Clauses.
Subject clauses occupy the position of the subject. They are to be found either in the initial or in the final position (What is thine is mine. What happened after that surprised them both. I.Murdoch. It is surprising that he should have done it). Subject clauses can be introduced by conjunctions, conjunctive pronouns and adverbs.The clauses which can be found in the final position present two possibilities of interpretation: 1. It is the formal subject, the genuine subject is placed in the final position to be rhematized. 2. It is the genuine subject, the clause coming last is an appositive clause. Predicative clauses occupy the position of the predicative. They are introduced by the links be, seem, look, feel, become, etc.(The moral I draw is that the writer should seek his reward in the pleasure of his work and in release from the burden of his thought (W.S.Maugham).A complex sentence can carry a subject clause and a predicative clause {What gives an ideal beauty is that it is unattainable (W.S. Maugham). What he learnt is that life is not all poetry}. Here the distinction between the principal clause and the subordinate clause is arbitrary.
There are some varieties of object clauses: object clauses proper and speech- rendering object clauses (B. A.Ilyish called them clauses of indirect speech, M.Y.Blokh calls them reportive clauses). The object clause proper can be easily replaced by a noun (He bought what he wanted). A reportive clause usually comes after the verbs say, ask, exclaim, wonder, which are usually followed by clauses. Here very few nouns, or no nouns can be seen (She could not say what it was. She exclaimed that it was true. She wondered why on earth she was worrying so much).
Attributive clauses perform the function of an attribute. There are different varieties of attributive clauses: descriptive, restrictive, appositive. Within descriptive clauses we encounter continuative clauses, which are loosely connected with the principal clause (His book had an overwhelming success which amazed everybody).This looseness can be revealed transformationally (→His book had an overwhelming success and that surprised everybody). The complex sentences with continuous attributive clauses have a loose connection between the principal clause and the sub-clause, which proves that the distinction between coordination and subordination can be neutralized. The antecedent of continuative clauses is the whole of the main clause. The antecedent of an appositive clause is, usually, an abstract noun (I have always been a little disconcerted by the passion women have for behaving beautifully at the death-bed of those they love. W.S.Maugham).
Adverbial clauses constitute a vast field of syntax. They have semantic and structural peculiarities. The traditional identification of adverbial clauses is rational. It continues to work. Many attempts to work out a newer classification on the basis of “newly advanced scientific criteria” failed. Adverbial clauses are divided into 4 groups: 1. clauses of time and space. They denote temporal and special localization. The connectors are: while, as, since, before, after, until, as soon as, now that, no sooner than, where, etc.(I have grown a beard since I saw you last and fathered two fine sons .R. Graves); 2. Clauses of manner and comparison with connectors as, as though, as if, than, as…as, not so…as, etc. (He had spoken about America, as if he had lived in it all his life). Among these adverbial clauses we find clauses of proportionate agreement (B.A.Ilyish) (The better she felt the worse patient she made). These are parallel, mutually symmetrical structures with compression; 3.Adverbial clauses of attendant event, condition, cause, reason, result (consequence), concession, purpose. These clauses denote circumstance. Conditional and concessive clauses denote real, problematic and unreal condition and concession. The connectors are: if, suppose, even if, even though{If she missed coming, which happened twice, his eyes grew sad ( J.Galsworthy). If I’d only waited, perhaps, it would have gone all right (W.S.Maugham). Even if she had come yesterday, she would not have understood anything}.All types of clauses of circumstance are interrelated both semantically and paradigmatically {He opened the window wide that he might hear the conversation below (purpose)→ As he wanted to hear the conversation below, he opened the window and listened (cause)→Though he couldn’t hear the conversation below, he opened the window wide and listened (concession), etc.}.4.Parenthetical or introductory clauses. These clauses are joined to the principal clause loosely. There are two semantic sub-types here: introductory and deviational ( Strickland was not, I should say, a man of great intelligence. W.S.Maugham. Hope, if it was hope, did not hear him).
4. Connections between the Principal and the Subordinate Clause.
Sub-clauses can be optional or indispensable for the structural and semantic integrity of the complex sentence. So, the sub-clause can be connected with the principal clause indispensably or optionally. Indispensable are the structures which occupy the position of the subject or the predicative ( Whoever comes will be welcome. Health is what he needs. What might be is not what is). These sub-clauses cannot be removed, otherwise it would make the structure ungrammatical. Optional are those clauses (attributive, adverbial) which merely give additional information to the antecedent (She speaks broken English, and she has a very foreign appearance which she exaggerates. A Christie). The sub-clause is joined to the principal clause syndetically, i.e. by a subordinating conjunction, or asyndetically, by adjoinment (with or without inversion) {Tumors of the brain often cause behaviors the layman might think as psychotic (St.King); Should he come, tell me about it}.
5. Neutralization between Subordination and Coordination.
The borderline between the compound and the complex sentence is very vague and the difference between them can be neutralized. It occurs when a sub-clause comes to be very loose, losing its grammatical tension. Neutralization between subordination and coordination is observed when 1. a temporal clause (a while-clause, or a when-clause) expresses contrast rather than time {His sense of property is extreme, while you have practically none (J.Galsworthy); He wears fine clothes while I go in rags (O.Wilde)}. 2. Neutralization occurs in structures with continuative attributive clauses {The casino had been dropping money lately which shouldn’t be (M. Puso. Godfather)}→ The casino had been dropping money lately and that shouldn’t be }.The conjunctive pronoun which is easily replaced here by the phrase and that.. 3. Neutralization occurs when a when-clause expresses a successive action {I was listening, and thinking how the wind assailed and tore it when I heard a footstep on the stairs .Ch. Dickens. Great Expectations)→ and then I heard a footstep on the stairs}.
6. The Character of the Subordinating Conjunction
Most of the subordinating conjunctions and conjunctive pronouns and adverbs are polyfunctional as they introduce various kind of sub-clauses. (I remember the house where I was born). Normally the conjunctive adverb where introduces a spatial adverbial clause. Here where I was born is an attributive subordinate clause.
Most polyfunctional is the conjunction that which can introduce a great variety of sub-clauses : (an object clause) I know that he will never do that; (a subject clause) That this should be so cut her to the quick; (a predicative clause) What surprises me is that he never expected it; (a complement clause) It is the vastness of Russia that fascinates the traveler;(a clause of consequence) So great was her grief that she stood dumb, etc. We see that the conjunction does not determine the character of the clause.
7. Levels of Subordination
There are two basic types of subordination: parallel and consecutive. In parallel subordination sub-clauses refer to one and the same principal clause. (However hard he was working, whatever was happening, he never forgot me). Consecutive subordination presents a hierarchy of clausal levels. In this hierarchy one subordinate clause is commonly subordinated to another (I’ve no idea [1] why she said [2] she couldn’t call on us at the time [3] I had suggested).
To the universally recognized processes within a complex sentence there refer contamination, parcellation and emancipation. In contamination two syntactic and semantic relations are fused, which results in contaminated (mixed) clauses {This man looked as if he were suffering (J.Galsworthy). The clause underlined can be analyzed as a contamination of a predicative and an adverbial clause of unreal comparison. Parcellation consists in separating a sub-clause from the principal clause to rhematize (and emphasize) it (But princess Dragomiroff says that she married an Englishman. Whose name she cannot remember (A. Christie). Emancipation consists in a sub-clause turning into an independent sentence with a connective turning into an adverbial element (Supposing he comes? That he should have come to that! If only he were here today!).
9. Communicative Dynamism within a Composite Sentence( Compound and Complex) and a Supra-phrasal Unit.
In a compound sentence both parts are communicatively equal if they are connected by copulative and adversative coordination. If they are connected by causative and consecutive coordination, the second coordinative clause becomes rhematic (Come to Venice early in the morning and you will see a city bathed in a sea of light).